Circumcision and STDs: Difference between revisions
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'''{{FULLPAGENAME}}''' discusses the claims that male [[circumcision]] reduces the incidence of STDs other than [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]]. For a discussion of the claims made regarding [[HIV]], see [[Circumcision and HIV]]. | |||
==Circumcision promotion== | ==Circumcision promotion== | ||
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''It is not alone the tight-constricted, glans-deforming, [[onanism]]-producing, cancer-generating prepuce that is the particular variety of prepuce that is at the bottom of the ills and ailments, local or constitutional, that may affect man through its presence. The loose, pendulous prepuce, or even the prepuce in the evolutionary stage of disappearance, that only loosely covers one-half of the glans, is as dangerous as his long and constricted counterpart. If we look over the world’s history, since in the latter years of the fifteenth century syphilis came down like a plague, walking with democratic tread through all walks and stations in life, laying out alike royalty or the vagrant, the curled-haired and slashed-doubleted knight, or the tonsured monk, we must conclude that syphilis has caused more families to become extinct than any ordinary plague, black death, or cholera epidemic. Without wishing to enter into a history of syphilis, it is not outside of the province of this book to allude to its frequency and spread''. | ''It is not alone the tight-constricted, glans-deforming, [[onanism]]-producing, cancer-generating prepuce that is the particular variety of prepuce that is at the bottom of the ills and ailments, local or constitutional, that may affect man through its presence. The loose, pendulous prepuce, or even the prepuce in the evolutionary stage of disappearance, that only loosely covers one-half of the glans, is as dangerous as his long and constricted counterpart. If we look over the world’s history, since in the latter years of the fifteenth century syphilis came down like a plague, walking with democratic tread through all walks and stations in life, laying out alike royalty or the vagrant, the curled-haired and slashed-doubleted knight, or the tonsured monk, we must conclude that syphilis has caused more families to become extinct than any ordinary plague, black death, or cholera epidemic. Without wishing to enter into a history of syphilis, it is not outside of the province of this book to allude to its frequency and spread''. | ||
''The absence of the prepuce and the non-absorbing character of the skin of the glans penis, made so by constant exposure, with the necessary and unavoidably less tendency that these conditions give to favor syphilitic inoculation, are not evidently without their resulting good effects. Now and then syphilitic primary sores are found on the glans, or even in the urethra or on the outside skin of the penis, or outer parts of the prepuce; but the majority are, as a rule, situated either back of the corona or on the reflected inner fold of the prepuce immediately adjoining the corona, or they may be in the loose folds in the neighborhood of the frenum, the retention of the virus seemingly being assisted by the topographical condition and relation of the parts, and its absorption facilitated by the thinness of the mucous membrane, as well as by the active circulation and moisture and heat of the parts''.<ref>{{REFbook | ''The absence of the prepuce and the non-absorbing character of the [[skin]] of the glans penis, made so by constant exposure, with the necessary and unavoidably less tendency that these conditions give to favor syphilitic inoculation, are not evidently without their resulting good effects. Now and then syphilitic primary sores are found on the glans, or even in the [[urethra]] or on the outside [[skin]] of the penis, or outer parts of the prepuce; but the majority are, as a rule, situated either back of the corona or on the reflected inner fold of the prepuce immediately adjoining the corona, or they may be in the loose folds in the neighborhood of the frenum, the retention of the virus seemingly being assisted by the topographical condition and relation of the parts, and its absorption facilitated by the thinness of the mucous membrane, as well as by the active circulation and moisture and heat of the parts''.<ref>{{REFbook | ||
|last=Remondino | |last=Remondino | ||
|first=Peter Charles | |first=Peter Charles | ||
| Line 15: | Line 15: | ||
|title=The History of Circumcision | |title=The History of Circumcision | ||
|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/23135/23135-h/23135-h.htm#CHAPTER_XVI | |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/23135/23135-h/23135-h.htm#CHAPTER_XVI | ||
|chapter=Chapter XVI | |chapter=Chapter XVI | ||
| | |page=iii | ||
|location=Philadelphia | |location=Philadelphia | ||
|publisher=F. A. Davis | |publisher=F. A. Davis | ||
|accessdate=2020-05-22 | |accessdate=2020-05-22 | ||
}}</ref> | |||
</blockquote> | </blockquote> | ||
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== The immunological function of the foreskin == | == The immunological function of the foreskin == | ||
The foreskin's inner fold and the glans of the penis are comprised of [[Preputial mucosa| mucous membrane]] tissue. These are also present in your eyes, mouth, and all other bodily orifices including the female genitals. These are the first line of immunological defense for the body's orifices. These mucous membranes perform many immunological and hygienic functions. | The [[foreskin]]'s inner fold and the [[glans]] of the [[penis]] are comprised of [[Preputial mucosa| mucous membrane]] tissue. These are also present in your eyes, mouth, and all other bodily orifices including the female genitals. These are the first line of immunological defense for the body's orifices. These mucous membranes perform many immunological and hygienic functions. | ||
Certain components such as [[Langerhans cells]],<ref>{{REFjournal | Certain components such as [[Langerhans cells]],<ref>{{REFjournal | ||
| Line 162: | Line 156: | ||
|last4=Chaudhuri | |last4=Chaudhuri | ||
|init4=S | |init4=S | ||
|url= | |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/anatomy/parkash/ | ||
|title=Human subpreputial collection: its nature and formation | |title=Human subpreputial collection: its nature and formation | ||
|journal=J Urol | |journal=J Urol | ||
| Line 189: | Line 183: | ||
|last=Hill | |last=Hill | ||
|author-link=George Hill | |author-link=George Hill | ||
|url= | |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/disease/HIV/hill1/ | ||
|title=Summary of evidence that the foreskin and lysozyme may protect against HIV infection | |title=Summary of evidence that the foreskin and lysozyme may protect against HIV infection | ||
|publisher=[[CIRP]] | |||
|date=2003-09-07 | |date=2003-09-07 | ||
|accessdate=2019-10-20 | |accessdate=2019-10-20 | ||
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|accessdate=2019-10-20 | |accessdate=2019-10-20 | ||
}}</ref> which is a very important non-antibody protein that generates immune response when in contact with specific agents. Plasma cells which increase in number in response to pathogens levels, secrete immunoglobulin.<ref name="flower1983"/> | }}</ref> which is a very important non-antibody protein that generates immune response when in contact with specific agents. Plasma cells which increase in number in response to pathogens levels, secrete immunoglobulin.<ref name="flower1983"/> | ||
It is also very important to note that [[Langerhans cells]] that are present in the foreskin produce ''Langerin'', a substance that has been proven to kill human immunodeficency virus ([[HIV]]) on contact.<ref>{{ | It is also very important to note that [[Langerhans cells]] that are present in the [[foreskin]] produce ''Langerin'', a substance that has been proven to kill human immunodeficency virus ([[HIV]]) on contact.<ref>{{DeWitte etal 2007}}</ref> | ||
}}</ref> | |||
All of these function to sequester and “digest” foreign pathogens. All these substances play an important role in protecting the penis from viral and bacterial pathogens. The immunological functions of the human prepuce have been extensively documented by respected researchers for quite some time.<ref name="fleiss-hodges-vanhowe1998">{{ | All of these function to sequester and “digest” foreign pathogens. All these substances play an important role in protecting the penis from viral and bacterial pathogens. The immunological functions of the human prepuce have been extensively documented by respected researchers for quite some time.<ref name="fleiss-hodges-vanhowe1998">{{FleissP HodgesF VanHoweRS 1998}}</ref> | ||
}}</ref> | |||
Circumcision destroys the natural immunological protections of the [[foreskin]] and results in increased risk of contracting infection. | [[Circumcision]] destroys the natural immunological protections of the [[foreskin]] and results in increased risk of contracting [[infection]]. | ||
==Contemporary view based on medical science== | ==Contemporary view based on medical science== | ||
Evidence-based medicine does not support the subjective opinion of the early circumcision-promoters.<ref name="vanhowe2013">{{REFjournal | Evidence-based medicine does not support the subjective opinion of the early [[circumcision]]-promoters.<ref name="vanhowe2013">{{REFjournal | ||
|last=Van Howe | |last=Van Howe | ||
|first=Robert S. | |first=Robert S. | ||
|init=RS | |init=RS | ||
|author-link=Robert Van Howe | |author-link=Robert S. Van Howe | ||
|etal=no | |etal=no | ||
|title=Sexually Transmitted Infections and Male Circumcision: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | |title=Sexually Transmitted Infections and Male Circumcision: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | ||
| Line 281: | Line 238: | ||
}}</ref> | }}</ref> | ||
Circumcision advocates had falsely claimed that the sub-preputial space was a filthy [[cesspool]] of infection that was eliminated by circumcision. However, Parkash et al. (1982) showed that the sub-preputial moisture actually contained lytic material with antiseptic qualities that protected against disease.<ref>{{REFjournal | [[Circumcision]] advocates had falsely claimed that the sub-preputial space was a filthy [[cesspool]] of [[infection]] that was eliminated by [[circumcision]]. However, Parkash et al. (1982) showed that the sub-preputial moisture actually contained lytic material with antiseptic qualities that protected against disease.<ref>{{REFjournal | ||
|last=Parkash | |last=Parkash | ||
|init=S | |init=S | ||
| Line 289: | Line 246: | ||
|author2-link= | |author2-link= | ||
|etal=yes | |etal=yes | ||
|title=Sub-preputial wetness - Its nature | |title=Sub-preputial wetness - Its nature | ||
|journal=Ann Nat Med Sci | |journal=Ann Nat Med Sci | ||
|date=1982-07 | |date=1982-07 | ||
|volume=18 | |volume=18 | ||
|issue=3 | |issue=3 | ||
|pages=109-112 | |pages=109-112 | ||
|url= | |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/anatomy/prakash/ | ||
|accessdate=2020-05-24 | |accessdate=2020-05-24 | ||
}}</ref> | }}</ref> | ||
Smith et al. (1987) found evidence that the foreskin protected against acquisition of non-gonococcal urethritis, possibly "''by affecting the physiologic milieu of the glans penis, by association with post-coital hygiene behavior, or by local immune defense mechanisms acting against the agent''."<ref name="smith1987">{{REFjournal | Smith et al. (1987) found evidence that the [[foreskin]] protected against acquisition of non-gonococcal urethritis, possibly "''by affecting the physiologic milieu of the [[glans penis]], by association with post-coital hygiene behavior, or by local immune defense mechanisms acting against the agent''."<ref name="smith1987">{{REFjournal | ||
|last=Smith | |last=Smith | ||
|first=Gregory L. | |first=Gregory L. | ||
| Line 335: | Line 286: | ||
}}</ref> | }}</ref> | ||
Cook et al. (1993) reported their findings that circumcised men were more likely to have genital warts than intact men. The authors concluded, "''the presence of the foreskin may confer nonspecific protection of the proximal penis from acquisition of HPV infection''."<ref name="cook1993A>{{REFjournal | Cook et al. (1993) reported their findings that [[circumcised]] men were more likely to have genital warts than [[intact]] men. The authors concluded, "''the presence of the [[foreskin]] may confer nonspecific protection of the proximal [[penis]] from acquisition of HPV infection''."<ref name="cook1993A>{{REFjournal | ||
|last=Cook | |last=Cook | ||
|init=LS | |init=LS | ||
| Line 362: | Line 313: | ||
}}</ref> | }}</ref> | ||
Cook et al. (1994) compared the incidence of sexually transmitted disease in intact males with circumcised males who attend the STD clinic at the [https://www.uwmedicine.org/locations/harborview-medical-center Harborview Medical Center] in Seattle, Washington, USA. They reported that genitally intact men were more likely than circumcised men to have syphilis and gonorrhea and were less likely to have visible warts.<ref name="cook1994">{{REFjournal | Cook et al. (1994) compared the incidence of sexually transmitted disease in [[intact]] males with [[circumcised]] males who attend the STD clinic at the [https://www.uwmedicine.org/locations/harborview-medical-center Harborview Medical Center] in Seattle, Washington, USA. They reported that genitally [[intact]] men were more likely than [[circumcised]] men to have syphilis and gonorrhea and were less likely to have visible warts.<ref name="cook1994">{{REFjournal | ||
|last=Cook | |last=Cook | ||
|first=Linda S. | |first=Linda S. | ||
| Line 392: | Line 343: | ||
}}</ref> | }}</ref> | ||
Bassett et al. (1994) investigated the factors associated with HSV-2 infection in heterosexual men at a sexual disease clinic in Sydney, Australia. They reported that, "''we found no evidence of the presence of an intact foreskin being a risk factor for HSV-2 infection''."<ref name="bassett1994">{{REFjournal | Bassett et al. (1994) investigated the factors associated with HSV-2 infection in heterosexual men at a sexual disease clinic in Sydney, Australia. They reported that, "''we found no evidence of the presence of an [[intact]] [[foreskin]] being a risk factor for HSV-2 infection''."<ref name="bassett1994">{{REFjournal | ||
|last=Bassett | |last=Bassett | ||
|first=Ingrid | |first=Ingrid | ||
| Line 435: | Line 386: | ||
|pubmedCID= | |pubmedCID= | ||
|DOI= | |DOI= | ||
|format=PDF | |||
|accessdate=2020-05-25 | |accessdate=2020-05-25 | ||
}}</ref> | }}</ref> | ||
Donovan et al. (1994) also surveyed men at a sexual disease clinic in Sydney, NSW, Australia. They reported: | Donovan et al. (1994) also surveyed men at a sexual disease clinic in Sydney, {{AUSC|NSW}}, [[Australia]]. They reported: | ||
<blockquote> | <blockquote> | ||
''In this clinic-based prospectively collected survey we found no association between male circumcision status and STDs that are common in our population. Perhaps importantly, our study group was relatively racially homogeneous, lack of circumcision was not a marker of lower socioeconomic status (using the index of education level; Table 2), and we controlled for a major parameter of sexual behaviour (lifetime number of sexual partners)''.<ref name="donovan1994">{{REFjournal | ''In this clinic-based prospectively collected survey we found no association between male [[circumcision]] status and STDs that are common in our population. Perhaps importantly, our study group was relatively racially homogeneous, lack of [[circumcision]] was not a marker of lower socioeconomic status (using the index of education level; Table 2), and we controlled for a major parameter of sexual behaviour (lifetime number of sexual partners)''.<ref name="donovan1994">{{REFjournal | ||
|last=Donovan | |last=Donovan | ||
|first=Basil | |first=Basil | ||
| Line 470: | Line 422: | ||
</blockquote> | </blockquote> | ||
Laumann et al. (1997) used data from the ''National Health and Social Life Survey'' (NHSLS) (1992) to report on the effects of male circumcision in the United States. With regard to STDs, Laumann et al. reported: | Laumann et al. (1997) used data from the ''National Health and Social Life Survey'' (NHSLS) (1992) to report on the effects of male [[circumcision]] in the [[United States]]. With regard to STDs, Laumann et al. reported: | ||
<blockquote> | <blockquote> | ||
''With respect to STDs, we found no evidence of a prophylactic role for circumcision and a slight tendency in the opposite direction. Indeed, the absence of a foreskin was significantly associated with contraction of bacterial STDs among men who have had many partners in their lifetimes. These results suggest a reexamination of the prevailing wisdom regarding the prophylactic effect of circumcision. While circumcision may have an impact that was not picked up by the NHSLS data, it seems unlikely to justify the claims made by those who base their support for widespread circumcision on it''.<ref name="laumann1997">{{REFjournal | ''With respect to STDs, we found no evidence of a prophylactic role for circumcision and a slight tendency in the opposite direction. Indeed, the absence of a foreskin was significantly associated with contraction of bacterial STDs among men who have had many partners in their lifetimes. These results suggest a reexamination of the prevailing wisdom regarding the prophylactic effect of circumcision. While circumcision may have an impact that was not picked up by the NHSLS data, it seems unlikely to justify the claims made by those who base their support for widespread circumcision on it''.<ref name="laumann1997">{{REFjournal | ||
| Line 486: | Line 438: | ||
|author3-link= | |author3-link= | ||
|etal=no | |etal=no | ||
|title=Circumcision in the United States | |title=Circumcision in the United States | ||
|journal=JAMA | |journal=JAMA | ||
|location= | |location= | ||
| Line 493: | Line 445: | ||
|issue=13 | |issue=13 | ||
|pages=1052-7 | |pages=1052-7 | ||
|url= | |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/general/laumann/ | ||
|pubmedID=9091693 | |pubmedID=9091693 | ||
|pubmedCID= | |pubmedCID= | ||
|accessdate=2020-05-24 | |accessdate=2020-05-24 | ||
}}</ref> | }}</ref> | ||
</blockquote> | </blockquote> | ||
Van Howe (1999) carried out a review of the medical literature concerning sexually transmitted infection. He referenced no fewer than 104 published papers in his review and concluded: | [[Robert S. Van Howe|Van Howe]] (1999) carried out a review of the medical literature concerning sexually transmitted infection. He referenced no fewer than 104 published papers in his review and concluded: | ||
<blockquote> | <blockquote> | ||
''What began as speculation has resulted a century later in 60-75% of American boys being circumcised with no clearly confirmed medical benefit. In the interim, no solid epidemiological evidence has been found to support the theory that circumcision prevents STDs or to justify a policy of involuntary mass circumcision as a public health measure. While the number of confounding factors and the inability to perform a random, double-blind, prospective trial make assessing the role of circumcision in STD acquisition difficult, there is no clear evidence that circumcision prevents STDs. The only consistent trend is that [[uncircumcised]] males may be more susceptible to GUD, while circumcised men are more prone to urethritis. Currently, in developed nations, urethritis is more common than GUD [34]. In summary, the medical literature does not support the theory that circumcision prevents STDs''.<ref name="vanhowe1999">{{REFjournal | ''What began as speculation has resulted a century later in 60-75% of American boys being circumcised with no clearly confirmed medical benefit. In the interim, no solid epidemiological evidence has been found to support the theory that circumcision prevents STDs or to justify a policy of involuntary mass circumcision as a public health measure. While the number of confounding factors and the inability to perform a random, double-blind, prospective trial make assessing the role of circumcision in STD acquisition difficult, there is no clear evidence that circumcision prevents STDs. The only consistent trend is that [[uncircumcised]] males may be more susceptible to GUD, while circumcised men are more prone to urethritis. Currently, in developed nations, urethritis is more common than GUD [34]. In summary, the medical literature does not support the theory that circumcision prevents STDs''.<ref name="vanhowe1999">{{REFjournal | ||
| Line 509: | Line 458: | ||
|first=Robert S. | |first=Robert S. | ||
|init=RS | |init=RS | ||
|author-link=Robert Van Howe | |author-link=Robert S. Van Howe | ||
|etal=no | |etal=no | ||
|title=Does circumcision influence sexually transmitted diseases?: A literature review | |title=Does circumcision influence sexually transmitted diseases?: A literature review | ||
| Line 558: | Line 507: | ||
}}</ref> | }}</ref> | ||
[[Morten Frisch]] and Jacob Simonsen (2021) carried out a large scale empirical population study in [[Denmark]] of 855,654 males regarding the alleged value of male [[circumcision]] in preventing [[HIV]] and other sexually transmitted infections in men. They found that circumcised men have a higher rate of STI and [[HIV]] infection overall than [[intact]] men.<ref name="frisch2021">{{ | [[Morten Frisch]] and Jacob Simonsen (2021) carried out a large scale empirical population study in [[Denmark]] of 855,654 males regarding the alleged value of male [[circumcision]] in preventing [[HIV]] and other sexually transmitted infections in men. They found that [[circumcised]] men have a higher rate of STI and [[HIV]] infection overall than [[intact]] men.<ref name="frisch2021">{{FrischM SimonsenJ 2021}}</ref> | ||
}}</ref> | |||
==Circumcised men have more risky sexual behavior== | ==Circumcised men have more risky sexual behavior== | ||
| Line 668: | Line 589: | ||
}}</ref> | }}</ref> | ||
Van Howe (1999) commented: | [[Robert S. Van Howe|Van Howe]] (1999) commented: | ||
<blockquote> | <blockquote> | ||
''Beaugé suggests that the loss of penile skin from circumcision frequently results in tightened skin over the erect penis. This increases friction during intercourse and increases the likelihood of abrasions through which a pathogen can be introduced systemically, making the circumcised penis more likely to contract an STD. The increased likelihood of circumcised men engaging in active anal sex may also increase a circumcised man's susceptibility to STDs''.<ref name="vanhowe1999" /> | ''Beaugé suggests that the loss of [[penile skin]] from circumcision frequently results in tightened [[skin]] over the erect penis. This increases friction during intercourse and increases the likelihood of abrasions through which a pathogen can be introduced systemically, making the circumcised penis more likely to contract an STD. The increased likelihood of circumcised men engaging in active anal sex may also increase a circumcised man's susceptibility to STDs''.<ref name="vanhowe1999" /> | ||
</blockquote> | </blockquote> | ||
| Line 676: | Line 597: | ||
The idea that circumcision could prevent sexually transmitted infection started with the subjective speculations of Victorian doctors in the 19th century and was reinforced by military orders to have servicemen subjected to circumcision during the 20th century. | The idea that circumcision could prevent sexually transmitted infection started with the subjective speculations of Victorian doctors in the 19th century and was reinforced by military orders to have servicemen subjected to circumcision during the 20th century. | ||
Professor Van Howe (2013) has provided a magisterial systematic review and meta-analysis citing 199 documents relating to circumcision and STDs. Van Howe's paper appears to be conclusive. His meta-analysis concludes as follows: | Professor [[Robert S. Van Howe|Van Howe]] (2013) has provided a magisterial systematic review and meta-analysis citing 199 documents relating to circumcision and STDs. [[Robert S. Van Howe|Van Howe]]'s paper appears to be conclusive. His meta-analysis concludes as follows: | ||
<blockquote> | <blockquote> | ||
''Most specific STIs are not impacted significantly by circumcision status. These include chlamydia, gonorrhea, HSV, and HPV. Syphilis showed mixed results with prevalence studies suggesting intact men were at great risk and incidence studies suggesting the opposite. Intact men appear to be at greater risk for GUD while at lower risk for GDS, NSU, genital warts, and the overall risk of any STIs. It is also clear that any positive impact of circumcision on STIs is not seen in general populations. Consequently, the prevention of STIs cannot be rationally interpreted as a benefit of circumcision, and a policy of circumcision for the general population to prevent STIs is not supported by the evidence currently available in the medical literature''.<ref name="vanhowe2013" /> | ''Most specific STIs are not impacted significantly by circumcision status. These include chlamydia, gonorrhea, HSV, and HPV. Syphilis showed mixed results with prevalence studies suggesting intact men were at great risk and incidence studies suggesting the opposite. Intact men appear to be at greater risk for GUD while at lower risk for GDS, NSU, genital warts, and the overall risk of any STIs. It is also clear that any positive impact of circumcision on STIs is not seen in general populations. Consequently, the prevention of STIs cannot be rationally interpreted as a benefit of circumcision, and a policy of circumcision for the general population to prevent STIs is not supported by the evidence currently available in the medical literature''.<ref name="vanhowe2013" /> | ||
| Line 682: | Line 603: | ||
Claims of prophylactic prevention of STDs and STIs can no longer be used to support the harmful practice of destructive male circumcision. | Claims of prophylactic prevention of STDs and STIs can no longer be used to support the harmful practice of destructive male circumcision. | ||
{{SEEALSO}} | |||
* [[Preputial sac]] | |||
{{LINKS}} | {{LINKS}} | ||
* {{REFweb | * {{REFweb | ||
|url= | |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/disease/STD/ | ||
|title=Circumcision and Sexually Transmitted Infections | |title=Circumcision and Sexually Transmitted Infections | ||
|publisher= | |publisher=[[CIRP]] | ||
|date=2008-03-10 | |date=2008-03-10 | ||
|accessdate=2020-05-22 | |accessdate=2020-05-22 | ||
| Line 698: | Line 621: | ||
|first=George | |first=George | ||
|author-link=George Hill | |author-link=George Hill | ||
|publisher=Doctors Opposing Circumcision | |publisher=[[Doctors Opposing Circumcision (D.O.C.)]] | ||
|website=Research hub | |website=Research hub | ||
|date=2008-06-14 | |date=2008-06-14 | ||
| Line 706: | Line 629: | ||
|url=https://www.doctorsopposingcircumcision.org/for-professionals/alleged-medical-benefits/sexually-transmitted-infections/ | |url=https://www.doctorsopposingcircumcision.org/for-professionals/alleged-medical-benefits/sexually-transmitted-infections/ | ||
|title=Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) | |title=Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) | ||
|publisher=Doctors Opposing Circumcision | |publisher=[[Doctors Opposing Circumcision (D.O.C.)]] | ||
|website=www.doctorsopposingcircumcision.org | |website=www.doctorsopposingcircumcision.org | ||
|date=2016 | |date=2016 | ||
| Line 713: | Line 636: | ||
{{REF}} | {{REF}} | ||
[[Category:Immunology]] | [[Category:Immunology]] | ||
[[Category:Disease]] | [[Category:Disease]] | ||
[[Category:Sexually transmitted disease]] | [[Category:Sexually transmitted disease]] | ||