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  |date=2018
  |date=2018
  |accessdate=2020-09-19
  |accessdate=2020-09-19
}}</ref>
== Incidence of penile cancer ==
In North America the rate of penile cancer has been estimated to be 1 in 100,000<ref>{{REFdocument
|last=Cutler
|init=SJ
|last2=Young Jr
|init2=JL
|title=Third national cancer survey: incidence data
|location=Bethesda, {{USSC|MD}}
|publisher=US Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service
|date=1975
}}</ref>. Maden et al. (1993) reported penile cancer among a fifth of elderly patients from rural areas who had been [[circumcised]] neonatally and had been born at a time when the rate of neonatal [[circumcision]] was about 20% in rural populations.<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Maden
|init=C
|last2=Sherman
|init2=KJ
|last3=Beckman
|init3=AM
|last4=Hislop
|init4=TG
|last5=Teh
|init5=CZ
|last6=Ashley
|init6=RL
|etal=yes
|url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/cancer/maden/
|title=History of circumcision, medical conditions, and sexual activity and risk of penile cancer
|journal=JNCI
|date=1993
|volume=85
|pages=19-24
|pubmedID=8380060
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=10.1093/jnci/85.1.19
|doi=
|accessdate=2023-09-07
}}</ref> Their study also shows that the rate of penile cancer among men [[circumcised]] neonatally has risen in the United States relative to the rise in the rate of neonatal circumcision.
Penile cancer is very rare in Europe and North America, occurring in about one in 100,000 men in the latter. It accounts for 0.2% of cancers and 0.1% of deaths from cancer amongst males in the United States. However, in some parts of Africa and South America it accounts for up to 10% of cancers in men.<ref name="What Are the Key Statistics About Penile Cancer?">{{REFweb
|quote=
|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20071030194444/http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_1X_What_are_the_key_statistics_for_penile_cancer_35.asp?sitearea=
|archived=yes
|title=ACS :: What Are the Key Statistics About Penile Cancer?
|last=
|first=
|publisher=
|website=
|date=2007-10-30
|accessdate=2007-12-13
}}</ref>
In Japan, Norway, and Sweden, the risk of penile cancer is about the same  as in the US (1 in 100,000 per year).<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Wallerstein
|init=E
|title=Circumcision. The uniquely American medical enigma
|journal=Urol Clin North Am
|volume=12
|issue=1
|pages=123-32
|url=http://www.cirp.org/library/general/wallerstein/
|quote=
|pubmedID=3883617
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=
|date=1985-02
|accessdate=2020-02-10
}}</ref>
}}</ref>


== Risk factors ==
== Risk factors ==
The major risk factors for penile cancer are advanced age (greater than age 60), use of tobacco, and infection with human papilloma virus.
The major risk factors for penile cancer are advanced age (greater than age 60), use of tobacco, and infection with human papilloma virus.


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  |pages=92-97
  |pages=92-97
  |url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/453164
  |url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/453164
|pubmedID=
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=
|doi=10.1001/jama.1914.02560270008003
  |accessdate=2023-09-06
  |accessdate=2023-09-06
}}</ref> epilepsy, paralysis, and [[masturbation]].<ref>{{Wolbarst1932}}</ref> No laboratory or clinical research had been done on the subject at the time, however Wolbarst's myth found its way into early medical textbooks regardless. Although the smegma hypothesis was completely disproven by an exhaustive study by Reddy in 1963,<ref name="reddy1963">{{REFjournal
}}</ref> epilepsy, paralysis, and [[masturbation]].<ref>{{Wolbarst1932}}</ref> No laboratory or clinical research had been done on the subject at the time, however Wolbarst's myth found its way into early medical textbooks regardless. Although the smegma hypothesis was completely disproven by an exhaustive study by Reddy in 1963,<ref name="reddy1963">{{REFjournal
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  |volume=32
  |volume=32
  |pages=15-21
  |pages=15-21
|pubmedID=2991988
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=
|doi=
|accessdate=2023-09-07
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Kaufman
  |last=Kaufman
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  |volume=3
  |volume=3
  |pages=678-692
  |pages=678-692
|pubmedID=3019599
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=
|doi=
|accessdate=2023-09-07
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=McCance
  |last=McCance
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  |volume=37
  |volume=37
  |pages=55-59
  |pages=55-59
|pubmedID=3000954
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=10.1002/ijc.2910370110
|doi=
|accessdate=2023-09-08
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Villa
  |last=Villa
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  |issue=6
  |issue=6
  |pages=853-5
  |pages=853-5
|pubmedID=3000954
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=
|doi=
|accessdate=2023-09-08
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=McCance
  |last=McCance
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  |issue=823
  |issue=823
  |pages=195-206
  |pages=195-206
|pubmedID=3011085
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=10.1016/0304-419x(86)90002-8
|doi=
|accessdate=2023-09-08
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Barrasso
  |last=Barrasso
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  |issue=15
  |issue=15
  |pages=916-23
  |pages=916-23
|pubmedID=3041217
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=
|doi=
|accessdate=2023-09-08
}}</ref> [[Ronald L. Poland| Poland]] identified human papilloma virus (HPV) types 16 and 18 as the cause of penile and cervical cancers in 1990, and that they could be spread by sexual contact.<ref name="poland1990">{{REFjournal
}}</ref> [[Ronald L. Poland| Poland]] identified human papilloma virus (HPV) types 16 and 18 as the cause of penile and cervical cancers in 1990, and that they could be spread by sexual contact.<ref name="poland1990">{{REFjournal
  |last=Poland
  |last=Poland
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  |volume=322
  |volume=322
  |pages=1312-5
  |pages=1312-5
|pubmedID=2183058
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=10.1056/NEJM199005033221811
|accessdate=2023-09-07
}}</ref> At least one study suggests that [[circumcised]] men are at higher risk for HPV infection,<ref name="cook1993">{{REFjournal
}}</ref> At least one study suggests that [[circumcised]] men are at higher risk for HPV infection,<ref name="cook1993">{{REFjournal
  |last=Cook
  |last=Cook
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  |volume=69
  |volume=69
  |pages=262-4
  |pages=262-4
}}</ref> making being [[circumcised]] a risk factor.
|pubmedID=7721284
|pubmedCID=1195083
|DOI=10.1136/sti.69.4.262
|doi=
|accessdate=2023-09-07
}}</ref> making being [[circumcised]] a risk factor.


===Use of tobacco===
===Use of tobacco===
Line 185: Line 294:
  |issue=6609
  |issue=6609
  |pages=1306-8
  |pages=1306-8
}}</ref>The use of tobacco has since been a well established risk factor in cancer of the penis.<ref>{{REFjournal
|pubmedID=3120988
|pubmedCID=1248379
|DOI=10.1136/bmj.295.6609.1306
|doi=
|accessdate=2023-09-08
}}</ref> The use of tobacco has since been a well established risk factor in cancer of the penis.<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Harish
  |last=Harish
  |init=K
  |init=K
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  |issue=3
  |issue=3
  |pages=375-377
  |pages=375-377
|pubmedID=7735804
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=10.1111/j.1464-410x.1995.tb07352.x
|doi=
|accessdate=2023-09-08
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Rogus
  |last=Rogus
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  |issue=4
  |issue=4
  |pages=861-2
  |pages=861-2
|pubmedID=3656549
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=10.1016/s0022-5347(17)43402-1
|doi=
|accessdate=2023-09-08
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Maden
  |last=Maden
Line 216: Line 340:
  |date=1993-01-06
  |date=1993-01-06
  |pages=19-24
  |pages=19-24
|pubmedID=8380060
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=10.1093/jnci/85.1.19
|doi=
|accessdate=2023-09-08
}}</ref>
}}</ref>


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  |issue=2
  |issue=2
  |pages=199-203
  |pages=199-203
|pubmedID=2547727
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=10.1002/ijc.2910440202
|doi=
|accessdate=2023-09-08
}}</ref>
}}</ref>
===Other risks===
[[Phimosis]] has been implicated as a risk factor in sexually active males, because a non-retractile [[foreskin]] may result in poor hygiene, and because men with [[phimosis]] are at higher risk for lichen sclerosus (also known as [[balanitis xerotica obliterans]]), which may also be a risk factor.<ref name="Rickwood">{{REFjournal
|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20080513042221/http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/eletters/321/7264/792
|REM=http://web.archive.org/web/20080513042221/http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/eletters/321/7264/792#110919
|archived=yes
|title=Rapid Responses for Rickwood et al.
|last=Various authors
|first=
|journal=BMJ
|volume=321
|issue=7264
|pages=792-3
|accessdate=2022-03-13
}}</ref> Adult males with a non-retractable [[foreskin]] who are sexually active may want to have the phimotic condition corrected. (For conservative treatment options, see [[phimosis]].)


===Circumcision as a risk factor===
===Circumcision as a risk factor===


Bissada et al. (1986) report cancer forms on the [[circumcision scar]].<ref name="bissada1986">{{REFjournal
Bissada et al. (1986) reported cancer forms on the [[circumcision scar]].<ref name="bissada1986">{{REFjournal
  |last=Bissada
  |last=Bissada
  |init=NK
  |init=NK
Line 275: Line 394:
  |DOI=10.1016/s0022-5347(17)45614-x
  |DOI=10.1016/s0022-5347(17)45614-x
  |accessdate=2020-02-10
  |accessdate=2020-02-10
}}</ref> Circumcision may now be considered a risk factor for penile cancer.
}}</ref> The [[circumcision scar]] may provide an entry point for HIV. [[Circumcision]] should now be considered a risk factor for penile cancer.
 
===Other risks===
[[Phimosis]] has been implicated as a risk factor in sexually active males, because a non-retractile [[foreskin]] may result in poor hygiene, and because men with [[phimosis]] are at higher risk for lichen sclerosus (also known as [[balanitis xerotica obliterans]]), which may also be a risk factor.<ref name="Rickwood">{{REFjournal
|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20080513042221/http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/eletters/321/7264/792
|REM=http://web.archive.org/web/20080513042221/http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/eletters/321/7264/792#110919
|archived=yes
|title=Rapid Responses for Rickwood et al.
|last=Various authors
|first=
|journal=BMJ
|volume=321
|issue=7264
|pages=792-3
|pubmedID=
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=
|doi=
|accessdate=2022-03-13
}}</ref> Adult males with a non-retractable [[foreskin]] who are sexually active may want to have the phimotic condition corrected. (For conservative treatment options, see [[phimosis]].)


== Symptoms ==
== Symptoms ==
Line 578: Line 716:
  |pages=31-37
  |pages=31-37
}}</ref>
}}</ref>
 
Rosemary Romberg (2021) explained:
== Incidence of penile cancer ==
<blockquote>
 
Both ''politics'' and ''economics'' are strongly involved in this issue. Far too often many choices in human health care have not centered on what is best for the individual. Instead they have centered on who is in ''control'' and who is getting ''paid''. A doctor is the person in ''control'' when he performs a circumcision. He cannot ''control'' whether or not that person is going to wash himself. Similarly, doctors get ''paid'' for doing circumcisions, but they do not get ''paid'' for telling people to wash.<ref name="romberg2021">{{REFbook
In North America the rate of penile cancer has been estimated to be 1 in 100,000<ref>{{REFdocument
  |last=Romberg
|last=Cutler
  |first=Rosemary
|init=SJ
  |init=
|last2=Young Jr
  |author-link=Rosemary Romberg
|init2=JL
  |year=2021
|title=Third national cancer survey: incidence data
  |title=Circumcision — The Painful Dilemma
|location=Bethesda, {{USSC|MD}}
  |url=https://circumcisionthepainfuldilemma.wordpress.com/
|publisher=US Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service
  |work=
|date=1975
  |editor=[[Ulf Dunkel]]
}}</ref>. Maden et al. (1993) reported penile cancer among a fifth of elderly patients from rural areas who had been circumcised neonatally and had been born at a time when the rate of neonatal circumcision was about 20% in rural populations.<ref>{{REFjournal
  |edition=Second Edition, Revised
  |last=Maden
  |volume=
  |init=C
  |chapter=Conclusions
  |last2=Sherman
  |scope=
  |init2=KJ
  |page=328
  |last3=Beckman
  |pages=
  |init3=AM
  |location=
  |last4=Hislop
  |publisher=Kindle
  |init4=TG
  |ISBN=23: 979-8683021252
  |last5=Teh
  |init5=CZ
  |last6=Ashley
|init6=RL
  |etal=yes
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/cancer/maden/
  |title=History of circumcision, medical conditions, and sexual activity and risk of penile cancer
  |journal=JNCI
  |date=1993
  |volume=85
  |pages=19-24
}}</ref> Their study also shows that the rate of penile cancer among men circumcised neonatally has risen in the United States relative to the rise in the rate of neonatal circumcision.
 
Penile cancer is very rare in Europe and North America, occurring in about one in 100,000 men in the latter. It accounts for 0.2% of cancers and 0.1% of deaths from cancer amongst males in the United States. However, in some parts of Africa and South America it accounts for up to 10% of cancers in men.<ref name="What Are the Key Statistics About Penile Cancer?">{{REFweb
  |quote=
  |quote=
|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20071030194444/http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_1X_What_are_the_key_statistics_for_penile_cancer_35.asp?sitearea=
  |accessdate=2023-08-31
|archived=yes
  |note=
|title=ACS :: What Are the Key Statistics About Penile Cancer?
|last=
|first=
|publisher=
|website=
|date=2007-10-30
  |accessdate=2007-12-13
}}</ref>
 
In Japan, Norway, and Sweden, the risk of penile cancer is about the same  as in the US (1 in 100,000 per year).<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Wallerstein
|init=E
|title=Circumcision. The uniquely American medical enigma
|journal=Urol Clin North Am
|volume=12
|issue=1
|pages=123-32
|url=http://www.cirp.org/library/general/wallerstein/
|quote=
|pubmedID=3883617
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=
|date=1985-02
  |accessdate=2020-02-10
}}</ref>
}}</ref>
</blockquote>


== HPV vaccine ==
== HPV vaccine ==
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