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{{Construction SiteGraphicWarning}}"Male '''circumcision''' (from Latin ''circumcidere'', meaning "to cut around") is the surgical removal or [[amputation]] of the [[foreskin]] (prepuce), a major part of the human [[penis]]. The foreskin comprises ''more than fifty percent'' of the epithelium of the [[penis]].<ref name="taylor1996">{{TaylorJR LockwoodAP TaylorAJ 1996}}</ref> When the "cutting around" is performed, the foreskin falls off, so [[amputation]] and [[mutilation]] is the result. The amputation destroys the [[Foreskin#Physiological_functions| many protective, immunological, sexual, and sensory physiological functions]] of the foreskin, so it is a very harmful and [[Pain| painful]] surgery.

"Male '''circumcisionPosthectomy''' (from Latin is the more accurate medical term that more accurately reflects the injury and loss of functional body tissue, but the Biblical [[euphemism]], ''circumciderecircumcision'', meaning "is more commonly used.With reference to cut around") is the surgical removal involuntary, non-therapeutic circumcision of the children, [[foreskinChild Genital Cutting (CGC)]] is a newer term that has been introduced to avoid issues associated with more traditional terms. Bollinger (prepuce2023) from the human identifed CGC as an [[penisAdverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)| adverse childhood experience]]. [...] The procedure is most often an elective surgery performed on neonates and children for religious and cultural reasons, but in other cases may be indicated for both therapeutic and prophylactic reasons. <ref name="bollinger2023">{{REFjournal |last=Bollinger |init=D |author-link=Dan Bollinger |last2= |init2= |author2-link= It is a treatment option for pathological phimosis, refractory balanoposthitis and chronic urinary tract infections (UTIs); it is contraindicated in cases of certain genital structure abnormalities or poor general health." (Source: [http|url=https://en.wikipediakindredmedia.org/wiki2023/02/adverse-childhood-experiences-dysfunctional-households-and-circumcision/ |title=Adverse Childhood Experiences, Dysfunctional Households, And Circumcision Wikipedia]). |journal=Kindred |date=2023-02-28 |volume= |issue= |pages= |accessdate=2023-03-01}}</ref>

Circumcision was popularized in English-speaking nationns in the nineteeth century. The practice of non----therapeutic circumcision of boys now has greatly declined in [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. It has been gradually declining since 1985 in the [[United States]]. It has ''never'' been a popular practice in other western nations.

The [[amputation]] of the [[foreskin]] is a very old ritual, whose exact origin cannot be verified beyond doubt. Circumcision is believed to have originated in east Africa near the Red Sea well before the dawn of recorded history.<ref name="demeo1997">{{REFbook |last= NonDeMeo |first= |author-link= |year=1997 |title=The geography of sexual mutilations |url=https://www.academia.edu/4212007/The_Geography_of_Male_and_Female_Genital_Mutilations |work=Sexual Mutilations: A Human Tragedy |editors=George C. Denniston, Marilyn Milos |edition= |volume= |chapter= |pages= |location=New York |publisher=Plenum |isbn=0-306-medical indications for circumcision 45589-7 |quote= |accessdate=2021-11-13 |note=}}</ref> Medical historians assume that circumcision already served in ancient history as a way to control the sexuality of slaves and members of the lower classes without compromising their ability to reproduce. In religious history circumcision may be seen as a substitute for human sacrifice. In prehistoric times it was not uncommon to placate the gods with human sacrifice. Castration of slaves or conquered enemies was common as well. Following religious changes this sacrifice was altered, and only a part of the very organ responsible for the creation of new life was sacrificed.

Apart from [[Image:Circumcision Sakkara 3.jpg|200px|right]] For the [[Aborigines]], the [[Australia| Australian]] natives, the medical indication tradition of pathological phimosiscircumcision is said to go back to 10,000 BC. On the African continent, there also the first circumcisions are other reasons for assumed to have emerged around 6000 BC. From ancient Egypt hints of various forms of circumcisiondate back to the time around 3000-2000 BC. The oldest known depiction<ref>{{REFweb |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Circumcision_Sakkara_3.jpg |title=File:Circumcision Sakkara 3.jpg |accessdate=2019-10-12}}</ref> is an Egyptian tomb relief from the 6th dynasty, approximately 2300-2000 BC. It is not known precisely who was circumcised and why in those times.

Since this modification and its possible late effects will be In [[Judaism]], the lifelong burden tradition of the person who undertakes an aesthetically motivated [[Brit Milah| circumcision ]] goes back to suit his personal preferences, the [[Abrahamic covenant]] in a valid decision to proceed can only be made by passage in the person Book of Genesis (17:10-14). It was seen as a covenant between God and man, dating back to be circumcised himself, once he has reached the necessary age and level patriarch Abraham. The validity of maturity to make that decision. This should normally be the case when adulthood this passage is reachedincreasingly being questioned.

{{Citation |Text=10 This is my covenant with you and your descendants after you, the covenant you are to keep: Every male among you shall be circumcised. 11 You are to undergo circumcision, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and you. 12 For the generations to come every male among you who is eight days old must be circumcised, including those born in your household or bought with money from a foreigner—those who are not your offspring. 13 Whether born in your household or bought with your money, they must be circumcised. My covenant in your flesh is to be an everlasting covenant. 14 Any [[uncircumcised]] male, who has not been circumcised in the flesh, will be cut off from his people; he has broken my covenant.” |Author=Bible |Source= Moral reasons ===Gen 17, 10-14, NIV}}

With According to the anthropologist and sociologist Rabbi Nissan Rubin, the [[foreskinJewish circumcision| Jewish form of circumcision]], called ''[[Brit Milah| brit mila]]'', during the first two millennia did not include the later customary ''[[periah]]'', circumcision removes approximately 70% namely the complete scraping of the sensitive tissue of inner [[foreskin]] from the [[Glans penis|glans]]. This was only added around 135 AD, lowering to make it almost impossible to restore the potential for sexual stimulation accordingly[[foreskin]] by [[stretching]], which became popular in the wake of Hellenic influence. Due to While originally only the loss of around 50% tip of the entire penile skin[[foreskin]] was cut off, the ''[[penisperiah]] loses '' removes the reserve skin that provides cutaneous mobility in the erect entire [[penisforeskin]] and the gliding action.

In the pastGreek society of the day, this circumstance a denuded [[Glans penis|glans]] was used to make it harder for boys to masturbate, as masturbation was viewed as immoral considered obscene and was assumed to cause a variety of diseasesrisible. More on that can be found in In ultra-orthodox communities, circumcision is followed by the chapter "''[[Circumcision#Historical_background|Historical backgroundmohel]]"'', the ritual circumciser, sucking blood from the wound with his mouth. TodayThis practice is highly controversial, as it is known that masturbation has no negative health effects, but can contribute positively to the child's sexual developmentresult in an [[infection]] with [[herpes]] simplex type 1. Sexuality is no longer a taboo nowadaysIn New York City, between 2000 and 2011 eleven children were infected with [[herpes]], while masturbation is considered 10 of whom had to be a natural part treated in hospital. Two of human sexuality and is no longer seen as immoralthem suffered permanent brain damage, two others died. ThereforeIn the 12th century, the Jewish philosopher and doctor [[Moses Maimonides| Maimonides]] claimed that circumcision was necessary, as it diminished sexual desires and reduced the pleasure to a degree just sufficient for moral reasons - which would only affect boys too young to give informed consent - is no longer justifiable nowadaysmere reproduction.

=== Hygiene reasons Christianity===Jesus was born into a Jewish family in [[Israel]], where [[Judaism]] was the prevailing religion, so He was [[circumcised]] on the eighth day.<ref>{{REFweb |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke+2%3A21&version=NASB |title=Gospel of Luke |last=Luke |first= |publisher=NASB |website=Bible Gateway |date= |accessdate=2019-11-10 |format= |quote=And when eight days had passed, before His circumcision, His name was then called Jesus, the name given by the angel before He was conceived in the womb.}}</ref>

A common reason stated for circumcision is the assumption of hygienic benefits. This argument has The first Christians had been born Jewish, so a question arose whether one must be [[circumcised]] to be viewed a Christian. When Christian leaders met at the [[Council at Jerusalem]] in the context of First Century to decide what was required to be a Christian, a letter was written to explain the environment requirements, but circumcision was omitted from the person in question grows up inrequirements.<ref>{{REFweb |url=https://www. It is commonly known that bad hygienic circumstances, especially insufficient access to clean drinking water, pose a serious problembiblegateway. The situation in disaster areas or refugee camps in the socom/passage/?search=Acts+15%3A1-30&version=NASB |title=Acts 15:1-30 |last=Luke |first= |accessdate=2019-11-called third world keep reminding us of that.10}}</ref>

In western industrial nations, however, this problem does not existChristianity, circumcision is practiced only in view of the availability of clean water for daily personal hygieneCoptic denomination. If the cleaning of the genitals There is no general belief that circumcision is performed on a daily basis requirement of Christianity.<ref name="hill2004">{{REFweb |url=https://www.cirp.org/pages/cultural/christian.php |title=The Holy Bible, Circumcision, False Prophets, and Christian Parents |last=Hill |first=George |author-link=George Hill |publisher=Circumcision Reference Library |website= |date=2004- and that may be assumed 08- no pathogens can accumulate under the [[foreskin]]. Cleaning of the [[Glans penis29 |glans]] and the area underneath the [[foreskin]] is easy accessdate=2019-11- they are simply washed along with the rest 10 |format=HTML |quote=The falseness of those who advocate circumcision is a recurrent theme in the body, just like the areas between the toesNew Testament.}}</ref>

Nevertheless, Christian moral notions had decisive influence on the spread of this practice. In small boys, where the [[foreskin]] cannot be retracted yetpuritan influenced USA, cleaning is not necessary, since circumcision of children was popular in the membrane that fuses the [[foreskin]] 19th century as a means to the prevent [[Glans penis|glansmasturbation]] prevents the accumulation of micro-organisms. The In those days, this so-called "ballooning"‘self-abuse‘ was not only considered immoral, where but was supposedly responsible for a variety of diseases. Masturbation, however, is not mentioned anywhere in the [[foreskin]] inflates during urinationHoly Bible, so there is not a serious problemno support for the belief that it is somehow immoral or sinful.

The opening Even the mere existence of the a [[foreskin]] in small boys is often quite narrow and serves as a was falsoly linked to many illnesses. Among them one-way valvecould find syphilis, epilepsy, allowing paralysis of the urine to flow outspine, bed wetting, scoliosis (spinal deformity), but preventing entry paralysis of microbesthe bladder, club foot, nerve pain in the lower abdomen, for example from a dirty diapertuberculosis and lazy eye. As long as One of the best known advocates of child is able to pass watercircumcision was [[John Harvey Kellogg]], everything works as nature intendedco-inventor of the corn flakes bearing his name.In 1888, he wrote:

But even {{Citation |Text=A remedy which is almost always successful in areas where small boys is circumcision, especially when there are poorer hygienic conditions and an insufficient access to medical care, the benefits is any degree of easier cleaning of a circumcised [[penisphimosis]] are to . The operation should be viewed with performed by a critical eye. Although even longer periods surgeon without personal hygiene administering an anaesthetic, as the brief pain attending the operation will not result have a salutary effect upon the mind, especially if it be connected with the idea of punishment, as it may well be in an accumulation some cases. In females, the author has found the application of germs under pure carbolic acid to the [[foreskinclitoris]], circumcision itself is not without risk an excellent means of complications. If allaying the operation is carried out without proper sterilityabnormal excitement, there is a high risk of an infection and preventing the recurrence of the woundpractice in those whose will-power has become so weakened that the patient is unable to exercise entire self-control. |Author=[[John Harvey Kellogg]] |Source= |ref=<ref>{{REFbook |last=Kellogg |first=John Harvey |init=JH |author-link=John Harvey Kellogg |url=https://archive. This also applies to the treatment of common complications like postorg/details/plainfaorold00kell/page/290 |chapter=Treatment for Self-operative bleedingabuse and Its Effects |title=Plain Facts for Old and Young |location=Burlington, Iowa |publisher=F. Segner & Co. |year=1888 |page=107}}</ref>}}

The benefit ===Islam===In [[Islam]], circumcision is also religiously founded, even though there is no mention of easier cleaning must be balanced against it in the Koran itself. According to tradition, the Prophet Mohammed was born without a [[foreskin]]. It is seen as a sign of prophets that they are born without a [[foreskin]] already. It is considered an honour to "resemble the risk example of promoting serious infections - among others HIV - during the operationProphet", meaning to be [[circumcised]]. In parts of AfricaIslam, unlike [[Judaism]], several dozen of one tribe's boys die each year as a result of their there is no specific age at which the circumcisionshould be performed. Most circumcisions take place at ages between 6 and 10 years, but the range goes from birth to adulthood.

* [[Phimosis]]: Many cultures perform circumcision as mentioned earlier, true [[phimosis]] is rare and can be treated effectively without surgery. According to a study by Blalock et.al. (2003)<ref>Blalock HJ, Vemulakonda V, Ritchey ML, Ribbeck M. Outpatient management of [[phimosis]] Following newborn circumcision. J Urol 2003;169(6):2332-4.</ref>, 2.9% of those circumcised develop a post-operative [[phimosis]], in which the circumcision scar constricts. In intact patients, the rate of [[phimosis]] is only 1% (see also the study by Jakob Øster above). Therefore, circumcision is not a preventive measure for [[phimosis]].* Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs): a vast number of studies has been conducted on the subject of transmission of STDs.* First, it has to be noted that any form rite of protection against these diseases only affects people who are sexually active. Circumcision in childhood cannot be justified on these grounds, since any assumed protective effect will not occur before the boy is already old enough to decide about circumcision for himself.* As mentioned above, the [[foreskin]] keeps the [[Glans penis|glans]] moistpassage into manhood. This subpreputial moisture contains, among other substances, the enzyme lysozyme, which breaks up the cell wall of bacteria, thereby providing a natural antibacterial screen. This explains the results of several studies, such as Laumann et.al.<ref>Laumann EO, Masi CM, Zuckerman EW. Circumcision in the United States: prevalence, prophylactic effects, and sexual practice. JAMA 1997;277:1052-7.</ref>, which found a higher rate of infection with bacterial venereal diseases in circumcised than in intact men.* The studies by Fleiss et.al.<ref>Fleiss PM, Hodges FM, Van Howe RS. Immunological functions of the human prepuce. Sex Transm Inf 1998;74:364-7.</ref> support this. According to the [[AAP]], the general sexual behaviour of the male - such as frequent change in partners and the use of condoms - has a much higher impact on sexually transmitted diseases then the circumcision status.<ref>Task Force on Circumcision. Circumcision policy statement. Pediatrics 1999;103(3):686-93.</ref>* HIV / AIDS: in the recent past, the argument that circumcision could help to contain the spread of HIV has been stated numerous times.*:First, two notes: for one, the use of condoms is still by far the most effective protection against an infection. During intercourse with that preventive measure, circumcision status does not make a difference.*:Secondly, the assumed protection would only affect healthy men who have intercourse with an infected woman. An infected man can infect a women by transmission of his bodily fluids, so that his circumcision status is irrelevant. Therefore, the use of condoms remains vital in containing the spread of HIV, which in return renders circumcision unnecessary* Due to the inevitable loss of sensitivity as a result of circumcision, there is also the temptation to go without condoms, in order not to lose even more sensitivity.<ref>Hooykaas C, van der Velde FW, van der Linden MM. et al. The importance of ethnicity as a risk factor for STDs and sexual behaviour among heterosexuals. Genitourin Med 1991; 67(5): 378-83.</ref><ref>Michael RT, Wadsworth J, Feinleib J, et al. Private sexual behavior, public opinion, and public health policy related to sexually transmitted diseases: a US-British comparison. Am J Public Health 1998;88(5):749-54.</ref><ref>Laumann EO, Masi CM, Zuckerman EW. Circumcision common in the United States: prevalence, prophylactic effects, and sexual practice. JAMA 1997;277:1052-7.</ref>* Two studies that have been published in early 2007<ref>Gray RH Middle East and colleagues. Male circumcision for HIV prevention in men in Rakai, Uganda: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2007:369;657-666.</ref><ref>[[Robert C. Bailey|Bailey RC]] and colleagues. Male circumcision for HIV prevention in men in Rakai, Uganda: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2007:369;643-656.</ref>, which investigated the effectiveness of circumcision as a means of reducing the spread of HIV from infected women to heterosexual men in amongst some indigenous African high risk areas, have been repeatedly subjected to strong criticism. Both studies were ended prematurely, which distorted the results. The men who had been circumcised for the study had to stay sexually inactive during the wound healing, which gave the intact control group more relative opportunity to become infected. The fact that the USA has both the highest rate of circumcised males in the western world, as well as the highest HIV infection rate, makes the studies look dubious. Besides that, several other studies concluded that circumcision does not have a significant impact on the risk of infection with HIV.<ref>Grosskurth H, Mosha F, Todd J, et al. A community trial of the impact of improved sexually transmitted disease treatment on the HIV epidemic in rural Tanzania: 2. Baseline survey results. AIDS 1995;9(8):927-34.</ref><ref>Barongo LR, Borgdorff MW, Mosha FF, et al. The epidemiology of HIV-1 infection in urban areas, roadside settlements and rural villages in Mwanza Region, Tanzania. AIDS 1992;6(12):1521-8.</ref><ref>Changedia SM, Gilada IS. Role of male circumcision in HIV transmission insignificant in conjugal relationship (abstract no. ThPeC7420). Presented at the Fourteenth International AIDS Conference, Barcelona, Spain, July 7-12, 2002.</ref><ref>Connolly CA, Shishana O, Simbayi L, Colvin M. HIV and circumcision in South Africa (Abstract No. MoPeC3491). Presented at the 15th International AIDS Conference, Bangkok, Thailand, July 11-16, 2004.</ref><ref>Thomas AG, Bakhireva LN, Brodine SK, Shaffer RA. Prevalence of male circumcision and its association with HIV and sexually transmitted infections in a U.S. navy population (Abstract no. TuPeC4861). Presented at the 15th International AIDS Conference, Bangkok, Thailand, July 11-16, 2004.</ref>* Urinary tract infections (UTI): a UTI can be effectively treated with antibiotics, this was also proven by studies<ref>McCracken G. Options in antimicrobial management of urinary tract infections in infants and children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1989;8(8):552–55.</ref><ref>Larcombe J. Urinary tract infection in children. BMJ 1999;319:1173–5.</ref>. A Swedish study <ref>Mårild S, Jodal U. Incidence rate of first–time symptomatic urinary tract infection in children under 6 years of age. Acta Paediatr 1998;87(5):549–52.</ref> found that, during the first 6 years of life, the incidence of UTIs in boys was 1.8%, but in girls was 6.6%. UTIs are less common in boys after the first year of life. Mueller et.al. <ref>Mueller ER, Steinhardt, G., Naseer S. The incidence of genitourinary abnormalities in circumcised and uncircumcised boys presenting with an initial urinary tract infection by 6 months of age. Pediatrics 1997;100 (Supplement): 580.</ref> did not find a significant difference in UTI rates between circumcised and intact boys with normal urinary tract anatomy.* Other studies suggest that circumcision is more likely to raise than to lower the generally low risk of acquiring UTI: multiple studies from Israel showed a strong correlation between ritual circumcision on the 8th day of life and postoperative UTI.<ref>Menahem S. Complications arising from ritual circumcision: pathogenesis and possible prevention. Isr J Med Sci 1981;17(1):45–8.</ref><ref>Cohen HA, Drucker MM, Vainer S, et al. Postcircumcision urinary tract infection. Clin Pediatr 1992;31(6):322–4.</ref><ref>Goldman M, Barr J, Bistritzer T, Aladjem M. Urinary tract infection following ritual Jewish circumcision Isr J Med Sci 1996;32:1098–102.</ref>* It can be concluded that circumcision is ineffective as a preventive measure against UTIs.* Penile and cervical cancer / HPV: first studies on those diseases and their assumed prevention by circumcision date back to 1932, a time when the cause for those illnesses was not yet fully understood<ref>Wolbarst A. Circumcision and penile cancer. Lancet 1932;1(5655):150–53.</ref>. Today, it is known that sexually transmitted human papillomavirus (HPV) is a major risk factor<ref>McCance DJ, Kalache A, Ashdown K, et al. Human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 in carcinomas of the penis from Brazil. Int J Cancer 1986;37(1):55–9.</ref>, as well as smoking<ref>Harish K, Ravi R. The role of tobacco in penile carcinoma. Brit J Urol 1995;75(3):375–7.</ref>. Studies have shown that there is no significant difference in the risk of getting penile cancer between circumcised and intact men. To prevent a single case of penile cancer, it would statistically take 600 to 900 circumcisions<ref>American Academy of Family Physicians. Position Paper on Neonatal Circumcision. Leawood, Kansas, (February 14, 2002).</ref>. The influence of circumcision on the infection risk of the female partner with cervical cancer has been refuted several times as well. HPV vaccination is an effective measure against carcinoma of the cervixSoutheast Asian peoples.

In conclusionThe [[United States]] and [[Israel]] are the only industrialized countries in the world to have a high incidence of non-therapeutic infant male circumcision. The vast majority of infant circumcisions performed in the United States are for non-religious, non-medical reasons. See [[History of circumcision does not provide any proven benefits in preventive medicine]].

== Circumcision =Religious===The circumcision of newborn boys is seen as a [[Abrahamic covenant| divine commandment]] in detail: Stylesthe [[Judaism| Jewish faith]]. Though absent in the Koran, male circumcision is considered a religious requirement in [[Islam]], techniques and instruments ==it is performed on male children of varying ages. Converts to these faiths may also choose to undergo [[Adolescent and adult circumcision| circumcision]], but it is not always required.

During circumcision, the === Medical indication ===There are no [[foreskinmedical indication| medical indications]] for circumcision of the newborn. The [[peniscircumcision industry]] is partly or completely removed. The exact amount and type offers circumcision of skin removed depends on the style and technique used, and therefore also on newborn to the public because of the tools being used[[financial incentive]].

=== FirstThe form of circumcision adopted by the medical community essentially was equivalent to the Jewish form with ''[[periah]]'', a look on so it inflicted the common styles: ===maximum injury.

==== High & Tight<ref>deIn a few cases with older patients, circumcision is legitimately indicated; a patient may be suffering recurring infections, and other methods of treatment have failed.Wikipedia user Tinoel</ref> ====In other cases, a patient may be suffering from a severe case of [[Image:Penis_unlabeled.jpg|200px|centerphimosis]]This style . Overall, the actual medical necessity for circumcision is extremely rare since many conditions respond to conservative treatment. All circumcisions injure the most common in the USA. In this style, patient by amputating the outer [[foreskin]]its with many protective, immunological, sensory, parts of the inner and sexual [[foreskinForeskin#Physiological_functions| functions]] and parts of the shaft skin are removed.

The remaining part of the inner [[# '''Deformed or malformed foreskin]] is folded back and sewed to the shaft skin'''. The scar is located closer to the body, hence the term "high"A foreskin so deformed or malformed that it does not function properly may be removed by circumcision.

The inner [[# '''Traumatically injured foreskin]], which originally faced inwards lying on the [[Glans penis|glans]], now faces outward; this causes the differently coloured section between [[Glans penis|glans]] and shaft skin which '''. A foreskin so traumatically damaged foreskin that cannot be surgically repaired is characteristic a valid medical reason for this stylecircumcision.

Of all styles, the tight ones remove the most skin# '''Diseased foreskin. They already limit the mobility of the penile skin to a great extent when the [[penis]] ''' A foreskin that is flaccid, and during an erection the skin diseased is fully stretched and immobile. An insufficient amount of reserve skin can hamper a complete erection and lead to painful tensionvalid indication for cirumcision. AlsoSome diseases that qualify are malignancy, lichen sclerosis, a skewed [[penisBalanitis#Diabetic_males| yeast infection in men with diabetes]] can occur due to an uneven distribution of the remaining skin, often caused by an inaccurately placed cut or a uneven growth during wound healing. Due to the extensive shortening of the inner and recurrent [[foreskinbalanoposthitis]], this style also means the loss of large amounts of sensitive tissue.

==== Low & Tight<ref>David-matthias http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Beschneidungsstile,_Styles_of_Circumcision.jpg</ref> ====[[Image:Low_and_tight.jpg|200px|center]]In this stylesuch cases, both the inner and outer [[benefit of removing the problem foreskin]] are completely removed. The shaft skin is sewed just below may exceed the rim maleficial harms of the [[Glans penis|glans]]. The scar is located close the [[Glans penis|glans]], hence the term "low"tissue and function destruction.

This style is ====Arguments of prophylaxia====Though the most radicalpractice of ritual circumcision of males, both consenting and non-consenting, has existed for millenia, as it removes the entire sensitive tissue search for "potential medical benefits" began relatively recently. {''Potential'' means to exist in possibility, but not in actuality, so a "''potential'' benefit" is not a genuine proven benefit.) The discussion of circumcision in the [[foreskin]]. As in Ninth Edition of the high & tight style, large amounts ''Encyclopǽdia Britannica'' (1876) made no mention of skin are removed. In a flaccid stateany prophylactic, the skin is barely movablemedical, and in an erect state it is totally immobileor therapeutic value or function.<ref>{{REFweb |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/history/encyclopaediabritannica1876/ |title=Circumcision |last=Cheyne |first=T. K. |author-link= |publisher=Encyclopǽdia Brittanica |website=Circumcision Reference Library |date=1876 |accessdate=2019-11-10 |format= |quote=}}</ref>

An insufficient amount of reserve skin can hamper an erection and lead Initially, circumcision was adopted in the 19th century as a way to painful tension stop boys and a skewed men from masturbating, when [[penismasturbation]] in this style as wellwas claimed to be the cause for many diseases. As the myth that circumcision prevented masturbation became debunked, advocates of circumcision began the great search to find the "medical benefits" of circumcision.

Male and female circumcision involves the removal and disruption of normal anatomical structures that are primary areas of sexual sensation.<ref name="taylor1996"/> In the past, some advocates of mass circumcision have considered the [[prepuce]] to be a "mistake of nature,"<!--{{Cold and Wiswell (1995)}} | [[Template:Cold and Wiswell (1995)|see more]]--> but this notion has no validity because the prepuce is ubiquitous in primates and because it provides functional advantages.<ref name="cold-mcgrath1995">{{REFbook |last=Cold |first=Christopher |init=C |last2= High & Loose<ref>DavidMcGrath |first2=Kenneth |init2=K |author2-matthias httplink=Ken McGrath |year=1999 |title=Male and female circumcision: medical, legal, and ethical considerations in pediatric practice |url=https://commonswww.wikimediacirp.org/wikilibrary/anatomy/File:Beschneidungsstile,_Styles_of_Circumcision.jpg<cold-mcgrath/ref> |work= |editor= |edition= |volume=[[image:High_and_loose.jpg |200px|center]]The outer foreskin is completely removed, as well as parts chapter=Anatomy and histology of the shaft skin. The inner foreskin is folded back penile and sewed to the shaft skin. The scar is located towards the body, hence the term "high". Unlike the high & tight style, the inner [[foreskin]] is less reduced, and lies clitoral prepuce in folds behind the [[Glans penisprimates |pages= |location=New York |publisher= |isbn=0306461315 |quote= |accessdate=2019-10-12 |glans]].note=}}</ref>

There is enough remaining reserve skin All claims that circumcision prevents future disease are false.<ref>{{REFweb |url=https://www.doctorsopposingcircumcision.org/for-professionals/alleged-medical-benefits/conclusions-and-references/ |title=Conclusions |last=Anonymous |first= |init= |publisher=Doctors Opposing Circumcision |date=2016 |accessdate=2023-10-22}}</ref> They are made to ensure enable a complete physician to perform circumcision and unhindered erection. Of all variants, this one removes the smallest amount of sensitive tissuecollect a fee.<!--===Search for prophylactic reasons===

The practice of finding prophylactic reasons for infant circumcision started in Germany in the nineteenth century, when non-Jewish Germans criticized the Jewish practice of infant circumcision as being barbaric, Jewish doctors sprang to the defense of the religious practice by claiming health benefits.<ref name="ephron2001">{{REFbook |last=Ephron |first=John M. |init= Low & Loose<ref>DavidJM |author-matthias httplink= |year=2001 |title=Medicine and the German Jews |url=https://commonswww.wikimediacirp.org/wikilibrary/File:Beschneidungsstile,_Styles_of_Circumcision.jpg<history/ephron1/ref> |work= |editor= |edition= |volume= |chapter=6 |pages=222-33 |location=New Haven[[image:Low_and_loose.jpg |publisher={{UNI|200pxYale University|center]]Yale}} PressThe inner [[foreskin]] is removed, the outer [[foreskin]] is sewed on below the [[Glans penis |isbn=0-300-08377-7 |quote= |glans]]. The scar is therefore located close to the [[Glans penisaccessdate=2019-11-20 |glans]], hence note=}}</ref> And so started the term "low". The outer [[foreskin]] lies in folds behind the [[Glans penis|glans]]. Enough skin is left in place to ensure a complete long tradition of Jewish doctors inventing reasons for circumcision (and unhindered erectiondeceving gentile doctors).

Since, in contrast to Following the high & loose style, the inner instead of the outer [[foreskin]] is removed, this style results in the loss discovery of almost all bacteria as a cause of many diseases – such as tuberculosis – the sensitive tissuesearch began for other illnesses that could be prevented by circumcision.

=== Techniques In 1870 the prominent Dr. [[Lewis Albert Sayre|Lewis A. Sayre]] of NYC’s famed Bellevue Hospital<ref>https://nypost.com/2016/12/03/bellevues-doctors-invented-the-procedures-you-take-for-granted/</ref> claimed to cure a boy’s paralyzed legs with circumcision. Sayre's wild advocacy of circumcision exemplified how some [https://intaction.org/circumcision-facts-and instruments ===-myths/ circumcision facts and myths] originated. He also claimed to cure epilepsy, mental disorders, hip-joint pain, & hernias with circumcision. “Genital irritations” & masturbation were deemed to be the cause of these issues. Sayre was later elected as the President of the American Medical Association. <ref>American Medical Association. Transactions of the American Medical Association. 1870;21:205–11</ref>

Over time, a vast variety of methods has been developed to remove In the 1920s it was penile cancer. [[foreskinAbraham L. Wolbarst]](1926) claims that circumcision can prevent penile cancer. A multitude of clamps and tools is available to ease the work of the circumciser, to improve the chance for visually symmetrical results and to prevent injuries to the [[Glans penis<ref name="wolbarst1926">{{REFjournal |last=Wolbarst |glans]] from inexpert cutsfirst=Abraham L. I will introduce some of the most widely spread variants |init=AL |author-link=Abraham L.Wolbarst |title=Is circumcision a prophylactic against penis cancer? |journal=Cancer |date=Jul 1926 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=301-10}}</ref>

In the 1940s, prostate and tongue cancer as well as STDs. [[Eugene H. Hand]] (1949) falsely explains that circumcision somehow protects against venereal diseases and tongue cancer.<ref name="hand1949">{{REFjournal |last=Hand |first=Eugene H. |init= FreehandEH |author-techniques link=Eugene H. Hand |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18135844/ |title=Circumcision and venereal disease |journal=Archives of Dermatology and Syphilology[[File:Circumpendium |date=1949-6-2-1.jpg09 |volume=60 |issue=3 |centerpages341-6 |thumb]]pubmedID=18135844The oldest method of removing the [[foreskin]] uses just a few instruments |DOI=10. In the simplest case, the [[foreskin]] is pulled out with a cord, a knife is placed directly above the [[Glans penis|glans]], and the skin finally cut with a hit on the blunt edge of the knife1001/archderm. No stitches are placed and the skin is left to grow together naturally1949.01530030037004 |accessdate=2021-10-08}}</ref>

[[File:Circumpendium-6-2-1-b.jpg||center|thumb]]In modern operating theatres the 1950s it was cervical cancer. [[foreskinAbraham Ravich]] is first grasped with forceps, pulled out and clamped above (1951) invents the [[Glans penis|glans]] for a while to reduce bleeding. Next, the skin is cut along the forceps with a scalpel. Following myth that, the remaining skin is manually trimmed according to circumcision reduces the desired style and finally suturedrisk of women getting cervical cancer.<ref name="ravich1951">{{Ravich1951}}</ref>

In the late 1960s it was neuroses. [[File:Circumpendium-6-2-1-c.jpg||center|thumbMorris Fishbein]]Completely freehand techniques are also common. The penile skin is first cut in two places along the circumference(1969) calls for circumcision to prevent nervousness and, in the area of the shaft skin and course, [[foreskinmasturbation]]. After that the skin area between the cuts is removed and the remaining skin sutured.<ref>{{Fishbein1969}}</ref>

Also among In the freehand techniques are the shield variants1970s bladder- and rectal cancer. [[Abraham Ravich]] (1971) claims that circumcision would prevent bladder cancer and rectal cancer.<ref>{{Ravich1971}}</ref>

[[File:Circumpendium-6-2-1-Jewish-clamp.jpg||center|thumb|Jewish clamp]]In ritual Jewish circumcision the 1980s, UTIs. [[foreskinThomas E. Wiswell]] in inserted into the slit of the shield (left1985) and then cut on claims that circumcision, using a methodologically flawed report, reduces the upper side risk of the shieldurinary tract infections.<ref name="wiswell1985">{{REFjournal |last=Wiswell |first=Thomas E. |init=TE |author-link=Thomas E. Wiswell |url=https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/75/5/901 |title=Decreased incidence of urinary tract infections in circumcised male infants |journal=Pediatrics |date=May 1985 |volume=75 |issue=5 |pages=901-3 |accessdate=2019-10-12}}</ref>

[[File:Circumpendium-6-2-1-Mogen-clampAaron J.jpg||center|thumb|Mogen-clampFink]]The Mogen-Clamp works in a similar way (middle1986), with the difference no evidence whatsoever, claims that it is locked shut after the circumcision protects against [[foreskinAIDS]] is inserted, thus clamping itfollowed.<ref name="fink1986">{{REFjournal |last=Fink |first=Aaron J. |init=AJ |author-link=Aaron J. After a few minutes the [[foreskin]] is cut in the same fashion as Fink |title=A possible explanation for heterosexual male infection with the simple shieldAIDS |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |date=1986-10-30 |volume=31 |issue=18 |page=1167 |url=https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10. The clamping is meant to reduce or prevent bleeding from the wound1056/NEJM198610303151818 |DOI=10.1056/NEJM198610303151818 |accessdate=2019-11-20}}</ref>

Retrospectively, circumcision was always advertised as a cure for whatever disease was in the public spotlight at the time. [[File:Circumpendium-6-2-1-Sheldon-clampDoctors Opposing Circumcision (D.O.C.jpg||center|thumb|Sheldon-Clamp)]]The Sheldon-Clamp (right2016) works in a similar way. The inner clamp grasps state:<blockquote>These claims date originally from before the tip advent of evidence-based medicine, when doctors relied on the [[foreskin]]opinions of other clinicians to inform their practice, pulling it into the outer clamp which is closedrather than on scientifically collected evidence.<ref name="doc2016">{{REFweb |url=https://www. The outer clamp then grips the skindoctorsopposingcircumcision. After a few minutes of pressure, the org/for-professionals/alleged-medical-benefits/ |title=Alleged Medical Benefits |publisher=[[foreskinDoctors Opposing Circumcision (D.O.C.)]] is cut between the two clamps. |website= |date=2016-05 |accessdate=2019-11-20 |format= |quote=}}</ref></blockquote>

The use sheer mass of a shield, rather than forceps, is meant to provide a better protection of the [[Glans penis|glans]] from cutting injuries. However, if used improperly both the Mogen studies and the Sheldon clamp publications that were released during those almost 180 years on this topic are subject to the risk of the tip of the [[Glans penis|glans]] being accidentally clamped reason that even arguments that have been disproved multiple times, especially regarding infant and being cut into or severedchild circumcision, tenaciously persist up until today.

==== Complex clamps ====[[File:CircumpendiumAn ever-6-2-2-Gomco-clamp.jpg|center|thumb|Gomco clamp]]One recurring element of the most widely used clamps in the USA is the Gomco clamp. First, a cut is placed into the [[foreskin]], then the metal bell is placed over the [[Glans penis|glans]]. After that, the bell, together with the [[foreskin]], is pulled through the opening initiation rites found in the base plate and hung into the lever. By fastening the screw the lever pulls the bell upwards, jamming the [[foreskin]] between bell and base plate. After several minutes of clamping, the skin many different cultures is cut off with a scalpel along the upper side of the base plate and fixation upon the clamp removedgenitalia.

[[File:Circumpendium-6-2-2-plastibellIt reflects the fascination that emerges from the ability to create new life. In most cultures, fertility is seen as the most precious good, and the body parts involved frequently find themselves in the focus of ritual acts.jpg|center|thumb|plastibell method]]In many parts of the plastibell methodworld, those rites take place when the skin is first cut lengthwiseboy reaches puberty, then a plastic ring is placed over and are meant to symbolize his transition from boy to man. The removal of the male [[Glans penis|glansforeskin]] is just one of many phenomena that developed in this context. They range from the removal of the frenulum in boys and men through partial or complete removal of the [[foreskin]] pulled over itup to radical operations. A tightly tied string is used to fix the Australian [[Aborigines]], as mentioned above, have their [[foreskin]] to s removed. It is also usual that, a rim few weeks later, young men have their [[penis]]es sliced open in the ringa [[subincision]], thereby strangulating itresulting in a partly or completely divided [[urethra]].

The tissue beyond Another known, particularly massive, intervention is the string is cut off and stripping of the bell's handle cracked entire [[skin]] off. The strangulated tissue dies off in the following days, and the ring falls off on its own[[penis]]. Since this form of circumcision means part of the process goes on without medical supervisionIn Indonesia, it may not be possible to intervene promptly in boys have metal or bamboo balls inserted into their [[penis]] shaft or [[Glans penis|glans]] at the event of swelling; also there is a risk beginning of the ring being removed prematurely due to external influence. This may cause the healing wound to burst openpuberty, necessitating additional suturingwhich form little "humps".

[[File:Circumpendium-6-2-2-Smartclamp.jpg|center|thumb|Smartclamp]]The Smartclamp and a couple of For many cultures it is also common to perform similar designs are one way clamps, representing a mixture of the Gomco and Plastibell methodsrituals on girls. The [[Glans penis|glans]] is inserted into This can range from relatively small interventions such as piercing or cutting the plastic tubeclitoral hood, the [[foreskin]] pulled over it. The base plate to its complete removal and up to radical removal of the outer clamping mechanism is pushed over the clitoral hood, [[foreskinclitoris]] and cocked shut, jamming the [[foreskin]] between the bulging lower rim of the tube inner and the lower base plate. The [[foreskin]] is now cut off along the upper side of the base plate. The entire clamping mechanism remains on the [[penis]], until it - like the plastibell - falls off outer labia followed by itself after the clamped skin dies off in sewing up the following daysvagina.

All of these methods have in common that the [[foreskin]] has to be separated ''The following text is taken from the [[Glans penis|glans]] first. In case of the circumcision of a child, it is in most cases (see chart above) necessary to forcibly tear apart the balanopreputial membrane, which fuses the [[foreskin]] to the [[Glans penis|glans]], either by violently retracting the [[foreskin]] or separating it by pushing a blunt instrument underneath the [[foreskin]], both of which can result in injuries and inflammations of the [[Glans penis|glansCircumpendium]].''-->

== Risks and late effects = Prophylactic reasons ===

Just like tonsil or appendix surgerySome people claim that circumcision has prophylactic benefits. Especially in the [[USA]] those arguments have persisted for more then a 100 years, with ever changing diseases circumcision is a surgical intervention said to protect against. At first, these were diseases where [[masturbation]] was believed to be the cause. After bacteria and brings the usual risks related to surgical operationsviruses had been discovered, arguments changed, alongside several specific risks of complications and late effectsone after another miscellaneous diseases were cited.

* [[Phimosis]]: as mentioned earlier, true [[phimosis]] is rare and can be treated effectively without surgery. According to a study by Blalock et al. (2003)<ref name="blalock2003">{{REFjournal |last=Blalock |init=HJ |last2=Vemulakonda |init2=V |last3=Ritchey |init3=ML |last4=Ribbeck |init4=M |title=Outpatient management of [[phimosis]] Following newborn circumcision |journal=J Urol |date= Possible 2003 |volume=169 |issue=6 |pages=2332-4 |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/complications/blalock1/ |accessdate=2019-11-07}}</ref>, 2.9% of those circumcised develop a post-operative [[phimosis]], in which the circumcision scar constricts. In [[intact]] patients, the rate of [[phimosis]] is only 1% (see also the study by [[Jakob Øster]]). Therefore, circumcision is not a preventive measure for [[phimosis]].* Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs): a vast number of studies has been conducted on the subject of transmission of STDs.* First, it has to be noted that any form of protection against these diseases only affects people who are sexually active. Circumcision in childhood cannot be justified on these grounds, since any assumed protective effect will not occur before the boy is already old enough to decide about circumcision for himself.* As mentioned above, the [[foreskin]] keeps the [[Glans penis|glans]] moist. This subpreputial moisture contains, among other substances, the enzyme lysozyme, which breaks up the cell wall of bacteria, thereby providing a natural antibacterial screen. This explains the results of several studies, such as Laumann et al.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Laumann |init=EO |last2=Masi |init2=CM |last3=Zuckerman |init3=EW |title=Circumcision in the United States: prevalence, prophylactic effects, and postoperative complications sexual practice |journal=JAMA |date=1997 |volume=277 |issue= |pages=1052-7 |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/general/laumann/ |accessdate=2019-11-06}}</ref>, which found a higher rate of infection with bacterial venereal diseases in [[circumcised]] than in [[intact]] men.* The studies by Fleiss et al. (1998) support this.<ref name="fleiss-hodges-vanhowe1998">{{FleissP HodgesF VanHoweRS 1998}}</ref> According to the [[AAP]], the general sexual behaviour of the male — such as frequent change in partners and the use of condoms — has a much higher impact on sexually transmitted diseases then the circumcision status.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Task Force on Circumcision |first= |title=Circumcision policy statement |journal=Pediatrics |date=1999 |volume=103 |issue=3 |pages=686-93 |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aap1999/ |accessdate=2019-11-15}}</ref>* [[HIV]] / [[AIDS]]: in the recent past, the argument that circumcision could help to contain the spread of [[HIV]] has been stated numerous times.*:First, two notes: for one, the use of condoms is still by far the most effective protection against an infection. During intercourse with that preventive measure, circumcision status does not make a difference.*:Secondly, the assumed protection would only affect healthy men who have intercourse with an infected woman. An infected man can infect a women by transmission of his bodily fluids, so that his circumcision status is irrelevant. Therefore, the use of condoms remains vital in containing the spread of [[HIV]], which in return renders circumcision unnecessary* Due to the inevitable loss of sensitivity as a result of circumcision, there is also the temptation to go without condoms, in order not to lose even more sensitivity.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Hooykaas |init=C |last2=van der Velde |init2=FW |last3=van der Linden |init3=MM |etal=yes |title=The importance of ethnicity as a risk factor for STDs and sexual behaviour among heterosexuals |journal=Genitourin Med |date=1991 |volume=67 |issue=5 |pages=378-83 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1194736/pdf/genitmed00041-0022.pdf |accessdate=2019-11-15}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Michael |init=RT |last2=Wadsworth |init2=J |last3=Feinleib |init3=J |etal=yes |title=Private sexual behavior, public opinion, and public health policy related to sexually transmitted diseases: a US-British comparison |journal=Am J Public Health |date=1998 |volume=88 |issue=5 |pages=749-54 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1508929/pdf/amjph00017-0039.pdf |accessdate=2019-11-15}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Laumann |init=EO |last2=Masi |init2=CM |last3=Zuckerman |init3=EW |title=Circumcision in the United States: prevalence, prophylactic effects, and sexual practice |journal=JAMA |date=1997 |volume=277 |issue= |pages=1052-7 |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/general/laumann/ |accessdate=2019-11-06}}</ref>* Two studies that have been published in early 2007<ref>{{RCT Gray et al 2007}}</ref><ref>{{RCT Bailey et al 2007}}</ref>, which investigated the effectiveness of circumcision as a means of reducing the spread of [[HIV]] from infected women to heterosexual men in African high risk areas, have been repeatedly subjected to strong criticism. Both studies were ended prematurely, which distorted the results. The men who had been [[circumcised]] for the study had to stay sexually inactive during the wound healing, which gave the intact control group more relative opportunity to become infected. These African randomized clinical trials have been demonstrated to have very serious methodological and statistical errors that distort the results in favor of circumcision.<ref name="boyle-hill2011">{{BoyleGJ HillG 2011}}</ref>

* Intolerance or allergic reactions to The fact that the [[USA]] has both the narcotics used.* Especially highest percentage of [[circumcised]] males in newborns, where the bodily pain reduction mechanisms are not yet fully developedwestern world, local anaesthesia is often insufficient for the operation. Even in conjunction with regional anaesthesia of the dorsal nerve of as well as the highest [[penisHIV]]infection rate, makes the rate of failure to provide sufficient anaesthetic even for experienced anaesthetists is still 5-10%studies look dubious. The general anaesthesia Besides that would be needed for newborns, however, poses several other studies concluded that circumcision does not have a significant risks for impact on the child, and, therefore, is only likely to be used in emergenciesrisk of infection with [[HIV]]. <ref>{{REFjournal |last=Grosskurth |init=H |last2=Mosha |init2=F |last3=Todd |init3=J |etal=yes |title=A surgical operation without proper pain control can lead to community trial of the development impact of a specific pain memory<ref>Profimproved sexually transmitted disease treatment on the HIV epidemic in rural Tanzania: 2. Dr. med. Boris Zernikow httpBaseline survey results |journal=AIDS |date=1995 |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=927-34 |url=https://wwwinsights.spiegelovid.decom/aids/aids/spiegel1995/08/vorab000/expertecommunity-warnttrial-rituelleimpact-beschneidungimproved-veraendertsexually/15/00002030 |accessdate=2019-das11-gehirn-der-kinder-a-849534.html15}}</ref>. In unsedated and partially sedated infants increased secretion of the stress hormone cortisol could be observed for months after the operation. Overall, their pain threshold was lower and the risk of chronic pain increased. Regardless of these findings, infant circumcisions with insufficient or no anaesthetic are still common practice<ref>Garry T. Circumcision: a survey {{REFjournal |last=Barongo |init=LR |last2=Borgdorff |init2=MW |last3=Mosha |init3=FF |etal=yes |title=The epidemiology of fees HIV-1 infection in urban areas, roadside settlements and practices. OBG Management 1994. (October): 34rural villages in Mwanza Region, Tanzania |journal=AIDS |date=1992 |volume=6 |issue=12 |pages=1521-6.8 |url= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>Howard CR{{REFconference |last=Changedia SM, Howard FM, Garfunkel LC, de Blieck EA, Weitzman M. Neonatal Gilada IS |first= |title=Role of male circumcision and pain relief: current training practicesin HIV transmission insignificant in conjugal relationship (abstract no. Pediatrics 1998; 101:423ThPeC7420) |url= |place=Barcelona, Spain |source=Presented at the Fourteenth International AIDS Conference |datefrom=2002-07-07 |dateto=2002-07-428.12 |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>Stang HJ{{REFconference |last=Connolly CA, Snellman LW. Circumcision practice patterns in the United States. Pediatrics 1998; 101: e5. Link to [[AAP]] website</ref>. During procedures which take several minutesShishana O, babies tend to fall into a state of stuporSimbayi L, which Colvin M |first= |title=HIV and circumcision in the past was falsely interpreted as peaceful sleepSouth Africa (Abstract No. MoPeC3491) |url= |place=Bangkok, nurturing Thailand |source=Presented at the belief that babies felt no pain. Measurements taken in those cases revealed a typically 315th International AIDS Conference |datefrom=2004-07-11 |dateto=2004- to 407-fold increase in cortisol levels, which equals a state of severe shock.16 |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>Gunnar MR{{REFconference |last=Thomas AG, Fisch ROBakhireva LN, Korsvik SBrodine SK, Donhowe JM. The effects Shaffer RA |first= |title=Prevalence of male circumcision on serum cortisol and behaviorits association with HIV and sexually transmitted infections in a U.S. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1981; 6navy population (3Abstract no. TuPeC4861) |url=https:269//apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a458066.pdf |place=Bangkok, Thailand |source=Presented at the 15th International AIDS Conference |datefrom=2004-07-11 |dateto=2004-07-16 |accessdate=2019-75.11-15}}</ref>* Postoperative wound painUrinary tract infections (UTI): a [[UTI]] can be effectively treated with antibiotics, in the case of children's circumcisions conceivably worsened this was also proven by the forceful breaking of the preputial adhesionsstudies.<ref>{{REFjournal* Postoperative bleeding |last=McCracken |init=G |title=Options in antimicrobial management of the wound. This can have severe consequences especially for very young urinary tract infections in infants, if they are not treated promptly. Their blood volume is only about 85 ml per kilogram of body weight, and even moderate blood loss can lead to hypovolaemia, hypovolaemic shock and even death.<ref>Smart children |journal=Pediatr Infect Dis J, Nolan T |date=1989 |volume=8 |issue=8 |pages=552-5 |url=https://www. (Editors)cirp. Paediatric Handbook, Sixth Edition. Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Science Asia, 2000: p. 82org/library/disease/UTI/mccracken/ |accessdate=2019-11-19}}</ref><ref>Wetli CV. Case 93{{REFjournal |last=Larcombe |init=J |title=Urinary tract infection in children |journal=BMJ |date=1999 |volume=319 |issue= |pages=1173-1711. Autopsy of Demetrius Manker. Miami: Dade County Medical Examiner Department, June 23, 1993.5 |url= |accessdate=}}</ref>A Swedish study<ref>Hiss J, Horowitz A, Kahana T. Fatal haemorrhage following male ritual circumcision. J Clin Forensic Med 2000;7:32{{REFjournal |last=Mårild |init=S |last2=Jodal |init2=U |title=Incidence rate of first–time symptomatic urinary tract infection in children under 6 years of age |journal=Acta Paediatr |date=1998 |volume=87 |issue=5 |pages=549-4.52 |url= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>Newell TEC. Judgement found that, during the first 6 years of inquiry into life, the death incidence of McWillis, Ryleigh Roman Bryan[[UTI]]s in boys was 1. Burnaby8%, Bbut in girls was 6.C6%.: BUTIs are less common in boys after the first year of life.CMueller et al. Coroner's Service, Monday, 19 January 2004</ref>{{REFjournal |last=Mueller |init=ER |last2=Steinhardt |init2=G |last3=Naseer |init3=S* Postoperative infections. This includes both local infections, which can be treated |title=The incidence of genitourinary abnormalities in [[circumcised]] and [[uncircumcised]] boys presenting with local therapy, and systemic infections, requiring systemic antibiotic treatment.<ref>Dr.med Wolfram Hartmann, Stellungnahme zur Anhörung am 26. November 2012 im Rechtsausschuss des Bundestagesan initial urinary tract infection by 6 months of age |journal=Pediatrics |date=1997 |volume=100 (Supplement) |issue= |page=580 |url= |accessdate=}}</ref>* Wound dehiscence, meaning the separation of the edges of the wound or the tissue after suturing.* Adhesion did not find a significant difference in UTI rates between the surface or rim of the [[Glans penis|glanscircumcised]] and [[intact]] boys with the neighbouring penile skin, causing skin pockets and bridges, as well as visually unpleasant results like uneven scars, which make a re-circumcision necessarynormal urinary tract anatomy.* Postoperative Other studies suggest that circumcision is more likely to raise than to lower the generally low risk of acquiring UTI: multiple studies from [[phimosisIsrael]]: showed a phimotic ring can develop during scarring, which makes a re-strong correlation between ritual circumcision necessary. According to a study by Blalock et.alon the 8th day of life and postoperative UTI.<ref>Blalock HJ, Vemulakonda V, Ritchey ML, Ribbeck M. Outpatient management of [[phimosis]] Following newborn {{REFjournal |last=Menahem |init=S |title=Complications arising from ritual circumcision. : pathogenesis and possible prevention |journal=Isr J Urol 2003;169(Med Sci |date=1981 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=45-8 |url= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Cohen |init=HA |last2=Drucker |init2=MM |last3=Vainer |init3=S |etal=yes |title=Postcircumcision urinary tract infection |journal=Clin Pediatr |date=1992 |volume=31 |issue=6):2332 |pages=322-4. |url= |accessdate=}}</ref>, the prevalence is 2.9%, according to Leitch<ref>Leitch IOW. Circumcision - a continuing enigma. Aust Paediatr {{REFjournal |last=Goldman |init=M |last2=Barr |init2=J |last3=Bistritzer |init3=T |last4=Aladjem |init4=M |title=Urinary tract infection following ritual Jewish circumcision |journal=Isr J 1970;6:59Med Sci |date=1996 |volume=32 |issue= |pages=1098-651102 |url= |accessdate=}}</ref> 5.5%* It can be concluded that circumcision is ineffective as a preventive measure against [[UTI]].* Meatal stenosisPenile and cervical cancer / HPV: first studies on those diseases and their assumed prevention by circumcision date back to 1932, a pathological narrowing of time when the opening of the urethra, which mostly occurs in infancy and early childhood. It is one of the most common complications of infant circumcision. A study from 2006 found meatal stenosis exclusively in previously circumcised boys. The incidence rate after a circumcision is at approximately 10%cause for those illnesses was not yet fully understood.<ref>Van Howe RS. Incidence of meatal stenosis following neonatal circumcision in a primary care setting. Clin Pediatr (Phila). Jan-Feb 2006;45(1):49-54.{{Wolbarst1932}}</ref>Today, it is known that sexually transmitted human papillomavirus (HPV) is a major risk factor<ref>Stenram, {{REFjournal |last=McCance |init=DJ |last2=Kalache |init2=A., Malmfors, G., & Okmian, L. ( |last3=Ashdown |init3=K |etal=yes |title=Human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 in carcinomas of the penis from Brazil |journal=Int J Cancer |date=1986): Circumcision for [[phimosis]]: a follow |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=55-up study. Scandinavian journal of urology and nephrology, 20(2), 89 PMID 3749823.9 |url= |accessdate=}}</ref>, as well as smoking<ref>http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1016016{{REFjournal |last=Harish |init=K |last2=Ravi |init2=R |title=The role of tobacco in penile carcinoma |journal=Brit J Urol |date=1995 |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=375-overview7 |url= |accessdate=}}</ref>* Knot formation of the veins. If the dorsal vein, which originates Studies have shown that there is no significant difference in the tip risk of the getting penile cancer between [[foreskincircumcised]], is cut during circumcision without being clamped and sutured at its origin separately[[intact]] men. To prevent a single case of penile cancer, it starts would statistically take 600 to develop new branches over time, which can lead to the development of knots.900 circumcisions<ref>{{REFdocument |title=Position Paper on Neonatal Circumcision |url= |contribution= |last= |first=* Possible deformities due to circumcision include hypoplasia |publisher=American Academy of the [[penis]] Family Physicians (microLeawood, Kansas) |format= |date=2002-02-penis) and induratio [[penis]] plastica (skewed penis).14* Medical malpractice can also not be ruled out. Injuries, partly or entirely severing the [[Glans penis |glans]] or the [[penis]] can occur.accessdate=* In rare cases, necrosis, gangrene, ischaemia, keloid formation and circulatory problems may also occur}}</ref>.* When the The influence of circumcision is followed by on the ultra-orthodox Jewish ritual of Metzitzah B'Peh (which consists infection risk of sucking blood from the wound female partner with the mouth), there cervical cancer has been refuted several times as well. HPV vaccination is a risk an effective measure against carcinoma of infection with herpes simplex type 1, which can lead to brain damage or death.<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/08/nyregion/infants-death-renews-debate-over-a-circumcision-ritualthe cervix.html?_r=0</ref>

* An unavoidable late effect of any circumcision is the permanent loss of sexual sensitivity. This is partly due to the removal of sensory tissue. The [[foreskin]] contains very many nerve endings and touch receptors, which account for the major part of male sexual sensation. If the [[foreskin]] is removed, they can no longer provide sexual stimulation. It is also partly due to the fact that the surface of the [[Glans penis|glans]] reacts to the missing protection from friction and drying out by developing a callus layer. This reduces the sensitivity of the remaining nerves in the [[Glans penis|glans]] gradually over the years. The study conducted by Sorrells et.al.<ref>Sorrells ML, Snyder JL, Reiss MD, et al. Fine-touch pressure thresholds in the adult [[penis]]. BJU Int 2007;99:864-9.</ref> found a significant reduction of sensitivity to touch for circumcised compared to intact [[penis]]es in adult males. Other studies revealed that circumcised men use condoms significantly less often than intact men, since they further limit the sexual sensitivity (see above).* Painful tension can occur when there is too little reserve skin left to support a full erection<ref>Taylor, J.R., Lockwood, A.P., & Taylor, A.J. (1996). The prepuce: „Specialized mucosa of the [[penis]] and its loss to circumcision.“ British Journal of Urology, 77, 291-295.</ref>. This risk is partly dependent on the anatomy of the [[penis]]. While some [[penis]]es already have the majority of their full size when flaccid ([[Flesh Penis]], or "[[shower]]"), others are rather short when flaccid and double or more their size during an erection ([[Blood Penis]], or "[[grower]]"). Especially in children's circumcision, where the [[penis]] is not yet fully developed, the amount of reserve skin needed in adulthood cannot be estimated.* Erectile dysfunction: Both the damage inflicted to the blood vessels in the [[foreskin]] and the reduced sexual sensitivity can be causes for reduced erectile function with advancing age.<ref>Money, J., & Davison, J. (1983): Adult penile circumcision: Erotosexual and cosmetic sequelae. Journal of Sex Research, 19, 289-292</ref>* Orgasm problems: In the wake of reduced sexual sensitivity, due to the loss of sensory tissue and gradual keratinization of the surface of the [[Glans penis|glans]], orgasm problems may develop with increasing age. In this case, the sexual arousal created by intercourse or masturbation is not enough to achieve orgasm. A preliminary stage of this late effect is the prolonged time circumcised men need to reach an orgasm. This is often fielded as the "cut men have more endurance" argument for circumcision.* Vaginal dryness: Due to the loss of the natural gliding action, which comes from the mobility of the fore== Non- and shaft skin, a much increased friction between [[penis]] and vagina occurs during intercourse. This can make intercourse painful medical indications for both partners and lead to abrasions<ref>[[Morten Frisch]], Morten Lindholm, Morten Grønbæk: Male circumcision and sexual function in men and women: a survey-based, cross-sectional study in Denmark. In: International Journal of Epidemiology Oktober 2011, 40(5), S. 1367-1381, doi:10.1093/ije/dyr104, PMID 21672947.</ref><ref>Cortés-González, J., Arratia-Maqueo, J., & Gómez-Guerra, L. (2008): Does circumcision has an effect on female's perception of sexual satisfaction? Rev Invest Clin, 60(3), 227 PMID 18807735.</ref> The prolonged time it takes circumcised men to reach orgasm, as well as the often longer and more vigorous thrusting movements - compared to intact men - play a part in this.<ref>Cold CJ, Taylor JR. The prepuce BJU Int 1999;83 Suppl. 1:34-44.</ref><ref>Fink KS, Carson CC, DeVellis RF. Adult Circumcision Outcomes Study: Effect on Erectile Function, Penile Sensitivity, Sexual Activity and Satisfaction. J Urol 2002;167(5):2113-2116.</ref>==

The psychological late effects visual appearance of the [[penis]] is changed radically after circumcision are not yet fully researched. In this case, and many studies took place on rather personal taste is decisive whether an [[intact]] or a small scale[[circumcised]] [[penis]] is more appealing. This situation needs Since a circumcision cannot be undone, it is essential to be rectified, because fully informed about the available studiesrisks and possible later complications before embarking on an aesthetically motivated circumcision, as well as to decide whether the histories of negatively affected men, suggest that these late effects may have more impact than previously assumedappearance will justify such bodily modification.

* It was observed should be noted that infants, following every circumcision without pain control, had a disturbed bond with their mother<ref>Marshall RE, Porter FL, Rogers AG, et al. Circumcision: II effects upon mother-infant interaction. Early Hum Dev 1982; 7(4):367-74.</ref>, as well as problems with nurturing, up to the point of refusal to be fed. The sleeping habits of these babies were also disturbed, with prolonged non-REM sleep and increased waking.* In boys circumcised in childhood, post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) could be diagnosed. In a study on Philippine boys, in whom no PTSD was found prior to the operation, 69% of the boys circumcised in the traditional ritual and 51% of those circumcised by standard medical procedures (including anaesthesia) fulfilled the DSM-IV criteria for PTSD following the operation.<ref>Ramos S, Boyle GJ. Ritual and medical circumcision among Filipino boys: evidence of post-traumatic stress disorder. In: Denniston GC, Hodges FM, Milos MF (eds) Understanding circumcision: A Multi-Disciplinary Approach to leaves a Multilife-Dimensional Problem. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2001: pp. 253-70.</ref>* Circumcisions, especially those that happen without consent, can spark feelings of helplessness and alienation, which can persist as trauma. These feeling can also be triggered later, when someone circumcised as an infant becomes aware of his circumcision. In an online study, interviewed men stated they felt betrayed - 55% by the mother, 50% by the father, and 58% by the doctor, and 73% felt that their human rights had been violated.<ref>http://www.circumcisionharm.org/</ref>* It can frequently be found that the loss is denied, much as happens with the loss of other body parts. This denial can lead to fathers having their sons circumcised in order not to be reminded of their own loss. In this process, their own body is defined as "normal" and the long [[foreskincircumcision scar]] redefined as a foreign object. Their own parents are seen as "good", so that this image is projected onto the circumcision their parents carried out as well, in order to keep the positive emotion intact. The father wants to be a "good" father later in life as well, and so, following an idealised image of his own parents, circumcision, which has been redefined as a "good thing", is passed on to his son by having him circumcised as well.<ref>van der Kolk BA. The compulsion to repeat encircles the trauma: re-enactment, revictimization, and masochism. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1989;12(2):389-411.</ref><ref>Goldman R. The psychological impact shaft of circumcision. BJU Int 1999;83 Suppl. 1:93-103.</ref>* If the circumcised male feels incomplete, or due to the missing [[foreskinpenis]] disadvantaged compared to intact males, an inferiority complex and depression may occur. This can be accompanied by conscious recognition of his own incompletenessIn addition, or there frequently a a color change at the deficiency may remain completely subconscious<ref>Rhinehart J. Neonatal circumcision reconsidered. Transactional Analysis J 1999;29(3):215-21.</ref>. In an online study, 75% of those interviewed stated that they felt incomplete, and 66% said they felt inferior compared with intact males.<ref>http://www.circumcisionharm.org/</ref>* Cases in scar which children felt ill treated or punished have been documented as well. G. Cansever found results in her study on 12 boys aged between 4 and 7 years, who had previously been prepared for their impending circumcision, that the children experienced the operation as an aggressive assault on their bodies.<ref>Cansever, G. (1965). Psychological effects of circumcision. Brit. J. Med. Psychol. 38: 321-331.</ref>* Fear of being alone or darkness.<ref>David M. Levy, Psychic trauma of operations in children; and a note on combat neurosis, American Journal of Diseases of Children, Vol. 69, 1945, 7two-25</ref>* Fear of doctors, clinics and also closed roomstone appearance.<ref>David M. Levy, Psychic trauma of operations in children; and a note on combat neurosis, American Journal of Diseases of Children, Vol. 69, 1945, 7-25</ref>* Relapse into the state of bed-wetting, even if the child was already dry before.<ref>David M. Levy, Psychic trauma of operations in children; and a note on combat neurosis, American Journal of Diseases of Children, Vol. 69, 1945, 7-25</ref>

In the United States, payment for non-therapeutic circumcision is made by most [[Image:Circumcision Sakkara 3.jpgthird-party payment|200px|rightthird-party payers]] For the Aborigines, the Australian natives, the tradition without question of circumcision is said to go back to 10,000 BCnecessity. On the African continentDoctors frequently perform medically-unnecessary, the first circumcisions are assumed to have emerged around 6000 BC. From ancient Egypt hints non-therapeutic circumcision of various forms of circumcision date back infants and children simply to collect a fee for the time around 3000-2000 BCsurgical operation. The oldest known depiction<ref>http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Circumcision Sakkara 3.jpg</ref> only beneficiary of such surgery is an Egyptian tomb relief from the 6th dynasty, approximately 2300-2000 BC. It is not known precisely who was circumcised and why in those times[[Financial Incentive| bank account of the medical doctor]].

In With the Jewish religion[[foreskin]], the tradition of circumcision goes back to a passage in the Book removes approximately 70% of Genesis (17, 10-14). It is seen as a covenant between God and man, dating back to the patriarch Abraham.{{Citation| Text=10 This is my covenant with you and your descendants after you, the covenant you are to keep: Every male among you shall be circumcised. 11 You are to undergo circumcision, and it will be the sign sensitive tissue of the covenant between me and you. 12 For the generations to come every male among you who is eight days old must be circumcised, including those born in your household or bought with money from a foreigner—those who are not your offspring. 13 Whether born in your household or bought with your money, they must be circumcised. My covenant in your flesh is to be an everlasting covenant. 14 Any uncircumcised male, who has not been circumcised in the flesh, will be cut off from his people; he has broken my covenant.” | Author=Bible| Source=Gen 17, 10-14, NIV}}According to the anthropologist and sociologist Nissan Rubin, the Jewish form of circumcision, called brit mila, during the first two millennia did not include the later customary periah, namely the complete scraping of the inner [[foreskinpenis]] from , lowering the [[Glans penis|glans]]potential for sexual stimulation accordingly. This was only added around 135 AD, Due to make it impossible to restore the [[foreskin]] by stretching, which became popular in the wake loss of Hellenic influence. While originally only the tip around 50% of the entire [[foreskinpenile skin]] was cut off, periah removes the entire [[foreskinpenis]]. In loses the Greek society of reserve skin that provides cutaneous mobility in the day, a denuded erect [[Glans penis|glans]] was considered obscene and risible. In ultra-orthodox communities, circumcision is followed by the [[mohelgliding action]], the ritual circumciser, sucking blood from the wound with his mouth. This practice is highly controversial, as it can result in an infection with herpes simplex type 1. In New York City, between 2000 and 2011 eleven children were infected with herpes, 10 of whom had to be treated in hospital. Two of them suffered permanent brain damage, two others died. In the 12th century, the Jewish philosopher and doctor Maimonides pointed out that circumcision was necessary, as it diminished sexual desires and reduced the pleasure to a degree just sufficient for mere reproduction.

In Islamthe past, circumcision is also religiously founded, even though there is no mention of this circumstance was used to make it in the Koran itself. According harder for boys to traditionmasturbate and [[masturbation]] less fun, the Prophet Mohammed was born without a as [[foreskinmasturbation]]. It is seen was viewed as immoral and was assumed to cause a sign variety of prophets mental diseases, caused by the thinking of immoral thoughts! More on that they are born without a can be found in the chapter "[[foreskinCircumcision#Historical_background|Historical background]] already". It Today, it is considered an honour known that [[masturbation]] has no negative health effects, but can contribute positively to "resemble the example of the Prophet"child's sexual development. Sexuality is no longer a taboo nowadays, meaning while [[masturbation]] is considered to be circumcised. In Islam, unlike Judaism, there a natural part of human sexuality and is no specific age at which the circumcision should be performedlonger seen as immoral. Most circumcisions take place at ages between 6 and 10 yearsTherefore, but the range goes from birth circumcision for moral reasons - which would only affect boys too young to adulthoodgive [[informed consent]] - is no longer justifiable nowadays.

In Christianity, circumcision is only common in a few orthodox churches. Nevertheless, Christian moral notions had decisive influence on the spread of this practice. In the puritan influenced USA, circumcision of children was popular in the 19th century as a means to prevent masturbation. In those days, this so-called ‘self-abuse‘ was not only considered immoral, but was supposedly responsible for a variety of diseases. Even the mere existence of a [[foreskin]] was linked to many illnesses. Among them one could find syphilis, epilepsy, paralysis of the spine, bed wetting, scoliosis (spinal deformity), paralysis of the bladder, club foot, nerve pain in the lower abdomen, tuberculosis and lazy eye. One of the best known advocates of child circumcision was [[John Harvey Kellogg]], co-inventor of the Corn Flakes bearing his name. In 1888, he wrote:{{Citation| Text=A remedy which is almost always successful in small boys is circumcision, especially when there is any degree of [[phimosis]]. The operation should be performed by a surgeon without administering an anaesthetic, as the brief pain attending the operation will have a salutary effect upon the mind, especially if it be connected with the idea of punishment, as it may well be in some cases. In females, the author has found the application of pure carbolic acid to the clitoris an excellent means of allaying the abnormal excitement, and preventing the recurrence of the practice in those whose will-power has become so weakened that the patient is unable to exercise entire self-control.| Author=John Harvey Kellogg| Source=| refHygiene reasons ===<ref>Treatment for Self-abuse and Its Effects, Plain Facts for Old and Young, Burlington, Iowa, F. Segner & Co. (1888) p. 107</ref>}}Following the discovery of bacteria as a cause of many diseases – such as tuberculosis – the search began for other illnesses that could be prevented by circumcision.

In the 1920s it was penile cancer<ref>Abraham L. Wolbarst behauptet, die Beschneidung könne dem Peniskrebs vorbeugen. [Is circumcision a prophylactic against penis cancer? Cancer 1926 Jul;3(4):301-10]</ref>, in the 1940 prostate- ''Hygiene'' refers to health and tongue cancer as well as STDs<ref>Eugene H. Hand erklärt, dass die Beschneidung irgendwie gegen Geschlechtskrankheiten und Zungenkrebsschütze. [Circumcision and venereal disease. Archives of Dermatology and Syphilology 1949 Sep;60(3):341-6]</ref>, in the 1950s it was cervical cancer<ref>Abraham Ravich erfindet den Mythos, die Beschneidung verringere das Risiko von Frauen an Gebärmutterhalskrebs zu erkranken. [Prophylaxis of cancer of the prostate, penis, and cervix by circumcision. New York State Journal of Medicine 1951 Jun;51(12):1519-20</ref>, in the late 1960s it was neuroses<ref>Morris Fishbein fordert die Beschneidung zur Prävention von Nervosität und natürlich auch Masturbation. [Sex hygiene. Modern Home Medical Adviser. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Co: 1969 pp 90, 119]</ref>, in the 1970s bladder- and rectal cancer<ref>Abraham Ravich behauptet, dass die Beschneidung Blasenkrebs und Rektumskrebs vorbeugen würde. [Viral carcinogenesis in venereally susceptible organs. Cancer 1971 Jun;27(6)1493-6]</ref>, nd in the 1980s UTIs<ref>Thomas E. Wiswell behauptet, eine Beschneidung verringere das Risiko für Harntraktinfektionen. [Decreased incidence of urinary tract infections in circumcised male infants. Pediatrics 1985 May;75(5):901-3]</ref> and AIDS<ref>Aaron J. Fink behauptet, dass die Beschneidung gegen AIDS schütze. [A possible explanation for heterosexual male infection with AIDS. New England Journal of Medicine 1986 Oct 30;31(18):1167]</ref> followed. Retrospectively, circumcision was always advertised as a cure for whatever disease was in the public spotlight at the timeonly secondarily to cleanliness.

One should note that the human [[foreskin]] is endowed by nature with [[Foreskin#Immunological_functions| immunological functions]] that serve to protect the human body from disease.<ref name="fleiss-hodges-vanhowe1998"/> The sheer mass [[glans penis]] receives blood through the frenular artery.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Persad |init=R |author-link= |last2=Sharma |init2=S |author2-link= |last3=McTavish |init3=J |author3-link= |etal=yes |title=Clinical presentation and pathophysiology of studies and publications that were released during those almost 180 years on this topic meatal stenosis following circumcision |journal=Brit J Urol |date=1995 |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=91-3 |url=https://www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1464-410X.1995.tb07242.x |quote= |pubmedID=7850308 |pubmedCID= |DOI=10.1111/j.1464-410x.1995.tb07242.x |accessdate=2019-11-26}}</ref> These facts are the reason that even generally overlooked in arguments that have been disproved multiple times, especially regarding infant and child for alleged hygienic benefits of circumcision, tenaciously persist up until today.

An ever-recurring element A common reason stated for circumcision is the assumption of hygienic benefits. This argument has to be viewed in the context of initiation rites found the environment the person in question grows up in many different cultures . It is commonly known that bad hygienic circumstances, especially insufficient access to clean drinking water, pose a serious problem. The situation in disaster areas or refugee camps in the fixation upon the genitaliaso-called third world keep reminding us of that.

It reflects the fascination that emerges from the ability to create new life. In most cultureswestern industrial nations, however, fertility is seen as the most precious goodthis problem does not exist, and the body parts involved frequently find themselves in view of the focus availability of ritual actsclean water for daily personal hygiene. In many parts If the cleaning of the world, those rites take place when the boy reaches puberty, genitals is performed on a daily basis — and are meant to symbolize his transition from boy to man. The removal of that may be assumed — no pathogens can accumulate under the male [[foreskin]] is just one of many phenomena that developed in this context. They range from the removal Cleaning of the frenulum in boys [[Glans penis|glans]] and men through partial or complete removal of the [[foreskinpreputial sac]] up to radical operations. Australian Aborigines, as mentioned above, have their underneath the [[foreskin]]s removed. It is also usual that, a few weeks later, young men have their easy — they are simply [[penisPreputial_sac#Washing| washed with warm water along with the rest of the body]]es sliced open, resulting in a partly or completely divided urethrajust like the areas between the toes.

Another knownIn small boys, particularly massivewhere the [[foreskin]] cannot be retracted yet, intervention cleaning is the stripping of the entire skin off not necessary, since the [[penisSynechia| membrane]]. In Indonesia, boys have metal or bamboo balls inserted into their that fuses the [[penisforeskin]] shaft or to the [[Glans penis|glans]] at prevents the beginning accumulation of puberty, which form little micro-organisms. The so-called "humps[[Ballooning of the foreskin| ballooning]]", where the [[foreskin]] inflates during urination, is not a concern.

For many cultures it The opening of the [[foreskin]] in small boys is also common often quite narrow and serves as a one-way valve, allowing the [[urine]] to perform similar rituals on girlsflow out, but preventing entry of microbes, for example from a dirty diaper. This can range from relatively small interventions such As long as piercing or cutting the clitoral hood, child is able to its complete removal and up to radical removal of clitoral hoodpass water, clitoris, inner and outer labia followed by sewing up the vaginaeverything works as nature intended.

== Rights But even in areas where there are poorer hygienic conditions and Ethics ==an insufficient access to medical care, the benefits of easier cleaning of a [[circumcised]] [[penis]] are to be viewed with a critical eye. Although even longer periods without personal hygiene will not result in an accumulation of germs under the [[foreskin]], circumcision itself is not without risk of complications. If the operation is carried out without proper sterility, there is a high risk of an [[infection]] of the wound. This also applies to the treatment of common complications like post-operative [[bleeding]].

The benefit of easier cleaning must be balanced against the risk of promoting serious infections — among others [[/Rights situation/HIV]] is discussed in — during the operation. In parts of Africa, several dozen of one tribe's boys die each year as a subpage result of this articletheir circumcision.

=== Legal and ethical issues =Circumcision methods ==

Considering The [[Circumcision methods]] are discussed in a separate article.== Pain ==In the severity past, advocates of circumcision claimed that a newborn child's nerve system was not yet fully developed, and that as a result, the intrusion into child felt no [[pain]] during the body of circumcision procedure. [[Kanwaljeet J. Singh Anand| Anand]] & Hickey (1987) have shown that newborn children do in fact feel [[pain]], and more acutely than adults.<ref name="anand-hickey1987">{{REFjournal |last=Anand |first=KJS |author-link=Kanwaljeet J. Singh Anand |last2=Hickey |first2=PR |author2-link= |etal=no |title=Pain and its effects in the affected personhuman neonate and fetus |trans-title= |language= |journal=New Engl J Med |location= |date=1987-11-19 |volume=317 |issue=21 |pages=1321-9 |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/pain/anand/ |quote=However, in decisions about the question arisesuse of these techniques, whether it is both legally current knowledge suggests that humane considerations should apply as forcefully to the care of neonates and morally acceptable young, nonverbal infants as they do to leave the decision about a nonchildren and adults in similar painful and stressful situations. |pubmedID=3317037 |pubmedCID= |DOI=10.1056/NEJM198711193172105 |accessdate=2019-11-therapeutic operation on a child too young 08}}</ref> This has led American health associations to understand or give valid consent, recommend doctors take measures to reduce the parents alone[[pain]] of circumcision in infants. In Germany, several basic rights are concerned:

* the right to bodily integrity* the right to sexual self-determination* the right to equal treatment of genders (circumcisionThe [https://FGM of females is illegal)* the right to religious freedom (where the circumcision has a religious motive) These four basic rights are relevant from the legal as well as the ethical point of viewwww. Let us begin with the most obvious intrusion - the one into the bodily integritycirp. Under German law, children enjoy far-reaching protection, that limits the parental rights and the powers delegated to third persons overseeing the upbringing org/library/statements/aap1999/|AAP Circumcision Policy Statement] (such as kindergarten staff or teachers1999). Methods of upbringing states quite clearly that ''"There is considerable evidence that may cause physical or mental harm newborns who are prohibited[[circumcised]] without analgesia experience pain and physiologic stress"''. This Furthermore, the pain is not only corporal punishmentquite severe, which was common in families, schools and vocational training requires injections for ages, which may cause direct (proper pain management. Sucrose and sometimes severe) bodily harm - it also covers spanking, which is included under degrading treatmentAcetaminophen ''"cannot be recommended as the sole method of analgesia"''. It Topical cream is assumed that not only does no longer thought sufficient as ''"the immediate injury harm analgesic effect is limited during the child, but also phases associated with extensive tissue trauma such as...tightening of the feeling of helplessness and of being at someoneclamp"''s mercy at the time .<ref>{{REFjournal |last= |first= |title=American Academy of punishment by an authority figurePediatrics: Circumcision Policy Statement; Task Force on Circumcision |journal=Pediatrics |date=1999-03 |volume=103 |issue=3 |pages=686-93 |url=https://pediatrics.aappublications. This also applies to other treatment that harms the dignity of a child org/content/103/3/686#sec-9 |accessdate=2019-11- for example being forced to publicly change clothes in front of the kindergarten group after wetting his pants26 |note=Statement Reaffirmed Sept.1, 2005}}</ref>

If you take a look at the list of possible bodily and mental harms and late-effects listed The [[AAFP]] (2002) states quite simply in their [[Circumcision#Risks_and_late_effectshttps://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aafp2002/|position paper], ''"Risks and late effectsNewborns experience pain during circumcision"]], the imbalance becomes apparent. Spanking ''<ref>{{REFweb |title=Circumcision: Position Paper on Neonatal Circumcision. Board Approved: August 2007 Reaffirmed |website=Official American Academy of Family Physicians Website |url=http://www.aafp.org/online/en/home/clinical/clinicalrecs/children/circumcision.html |accessdate=2011-05-02}}</ref> This is already unlawfulnot a debatable fact, but the irreversible amputation of an importantand yet, healthy part of the genital organ it is notwidely accepted, even by some doctors. The inevitable and possible consequences of this operation are ignored It might be hard for some doctors to a degree accept, as they may have been taught that is in harsh contrast to the established protection of childreninfant does not feel [[pain]], and may have performed countless circumcisions with this idea. Legalization, therefore, represents a considerable limitation Usage of anesthesia for infant circumcision is still by no means the male child's right to bodily integrity and protection from potentially harmful methods of upbringingrule.

There Penile injections of local anesthetic are also ethical problems. Can now recommended by all of the major medical institutions if a child circumcision is to be denied performed. In their [http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/no-index/about-ama/13585.shtml Report 10 of the right Council on Scientific Affairs], the AMA states ''"When the decision is made to determine proceed with circumcision, local anesthesia should be provided for the visible appearance and degree of functionality of his body? Should a circumcised boy later in life decide that he would prefer to have an intact procedure. [[Ring block]] or [[dorsal penile nerve block]] [injections] are most effective. [[penisEMLA]], he cream has no means of reversing the decision his parents madelimited utility"''. Other peopleAlarmingly, ''s ideas about his body‘s appearance and functionality are imposed upon him irreversibly. He is denied "Despite the possibility clear evidence that newborn males generate brisk pain responses during circumcision, a recent survey of deciding upon residency training programs found that according to his own preferences, which can lead to inferiority complexes and depression - regardless 26% of programs that taught circumcision provided no instruction on the parents‘ reasons or their idea use of what would be best for their childlocal anesthesia". So great a level The AMA reports that "Of physicians performing circumcision, 45% use anesthesia, 71% of paternalism regarding such a severe intrusionpediatricians, especially in the most intimate area 56% of the childfamily practitioners, cannot be justified by and 25% of obstetricians"''.<ref>{{REFweb |title=Report 10 of the parents‘ willCouncil on Scientific Affairs (I-99): Neonatal Circumcision |website=American Medical Association Official Website |url=http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/no-index/about-ama/13585.shtml |accessdate=2011-05-04}}</ref>

It is not much different with the right The AAP's [http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/prenatal/decisions-to sexual self-determinationmake/pages/Where-We-Stand-Circumcision. Here, aspx Heatlhy Children website] suggests ''"Your pediatrician (or your obstetrician) should discuss the consequences forms of analgesia that circumcision has and can have for the body, play a significant roleare available"''.<ref>{{REFweb |title=Where We Stand: Circumcision |publisher=[[AAP]] |date=2011-03-23 |url=http://www. Normally, a man has free choice as to how he wants to experience his sexualityhealthychildren. It is solely up org/English/ages-stages/prenatal/decisions-to him to decide in which way he wants to be stimulated, and he can - if he so desires make/pages/Where-We-Stand- limit his sexual experience without a problemCircumcision. A circumcised man does not have these optionsaspx |accessdate=2019-10-12}}</ref> Be that as it may, few forms of analgesia are recommended. The full range There are basically two types of his sexual experience injections to choose from, and sensation is the website does not available to him due go into the to bodily modificationdifference between a 'dorsal nerve block' and a 'ring block' injection.

An intact [[penis]] enables many men to reach orgasm just by manipulation Given what is known from aforementioned official documents, the AAP website may be more informative and effective if it would say ''"Make sure your doctor knows of the [[foreskin]]ineffectiveness of anything short of local anesthesia, and make sure your baby is given an injection. During masturbationThis is your responsibility, the man can choose whether he wants because your doctor may or may not be up to stimulate date on the [[Glans penis|glans]] directly or indirectly through the movement latest understandings of the infant sensitivity to [[foreskinpain]]during circumcision. Since he has the full, naturally given potential of sensitivity at his disposal, he can use it to according to his own preferences. "'' The circumcised manAAP may be holding back, however, does not have that freedom of choice. He has neither the opportunity to include perhaps because this would upset the [[foreskin]] into the stimulationdoctor/parent power relationship, nor can he utilize its nerves and touch receptorsmay cause too much questioning of doctors in general. He also only has access One may not expect to 15-50% of the potential sensitivity find this kind of an intact man, depending advice on the amount and kind of tissue that was removedsuch a website, and the degree of keratinization of the [[Glans penis|glans]]. In some casesyet, the limitation can be even more severe. On anything less than this is a heavily desensitized [[penis]], condoms can limit the sexual stimulation to the point where not enough arousal can be built up to reach an orgasm - which means that fulfilling safer sex is not possibledangerously weak statement.

In particularTo control [[pain]], some physicians that circumcise use Tylenol, sugar,<ref>{{REFweb |quote=To calm the tight styles of circumcision bear baby during the riskprocedure, that a sugar filled gauze pacifier soaked with sweet juice is used, and soothing music is played in the loss of the frictionroom. |url=http://www.pollockclinics.com/circumcision/circumcision-reducing gliding effect leads to unpleasant feelings or even pain for both partners during intercourseguide. The ability html |title=Parents' Guide to masturbate without aid Circumcision |last= |first= |publisher= |date= |accessdate=2011- for example04-08}}</ref><ref>{{REFweb |quote=During the circumcision, from lubricants your son will receive sugar pacifiers to suck on which reduce his pain perceptions. |url=http://www.pollockclinics.com/circumcision/circumcision- can be significantly reduced or even be lost in such a casebefore. In html |title=Before the Circumcision |last= |first= |publisher= |date=2011-04-08 |accessdate=2011-04-08}}</ref> a studytopical cream,<ref>DaiSik Kim{{REFweb |quote=Then in our office, Myung-Geol Panghe will have topical anesthetic applied to his penis. |url=http: The effect of male //www.pollockclinics.com/circumcision/circumcision on sexuality-before.html |title=Before the Circumcision |last= |first= |publisher= |date=2011-04-08 |accessdate=2011-04-08}}</ref> and/or a local anaesthetic injection called a dorsal penile ring block. In: BJU international<ref>{{REFweb |quote=We use extensive pain control methods including Tylenol, Volume 99a sugar solution (to reduce pain perceptions), Issue 3a topical freezing cream, März 2007and a local anesthetic injection. |url=http://www.pollockclinics.com/circumcision/circumcision-guide.html |title=Parents' Guide to Circumcision |last= |first= |publisher= |date= |accessdate=2011-04-08}}</ref> Topical anaesthetic only serves to numb the area to lessen the pain of the injection, but studies have shown that a [[dorsal penile nerve block]] is only partially effective in stopping the [[Pain| pain of circumcision]].<ref name="Journal of Perinatology April/May 2002">{{REFjournal |last=Taeusch |first=H. William |init=HW |last2=Martinez |first2=Alma M. |init2=AM |last3=Partridge |first3=J. Colin |init3=JC |last4=Sniderman |first4=Susan |init4=S |last5=Armstrong-Wells |first5=Jennifer |init5=J |last6=Fuentes-Afflick |first6=Elena |init6=E |title=Pain During Mogen or Plastibell Circumcision |journal=Journal of Perinatology |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=214-8 |url=http://www.nature.com/jp/journal/v22/n3/full/7210653a.html |quote=... 619more than half of the study group had what we considered excessive pain/discomfort over the course of the entire procedure. |pubmedID= |pubmedCID= |DOI= |note=April/May 2002 |date=2002-04 |accessdate=2011-62204-08}}</ref><ref name="Clinical Pediatrics August 1986">{{REFjournal |last=Williamson |first=Paul S. doi |init=PS |last2=Evans |first2=Nolan Donovan |init2=ND |title=Neonatal Cortisol Response to Circumcision with Anesthesia |journal=Clinical Pediatrics |volume=25 |issue=8 |pages=412-6 |url=http:10.1111/j/cpj.1464-410Xsagepub.2006com/content/25/8/412.06646abstract |quote=The adrenal cortisol response to surgery was not significantly reduced by the administration of lidocaine.x, PMID 17155977 |pubmedID= |pubmedCID= |DOI= |date=1986-08 |accessdate=2011-04-08}}</ref>During circumcision, 63% somp physicians give children sugar pacifiers to "reduce the perception of pain",<ref>{{REFweb |quote=During the men interviewed reported problems with masturbation after being circumcised. If a boy or man is circumcisedcircumcision, without him making that decision for himself after thorough consideration and in full knowledge and understanding of all possible consequences, he is denied his constitutionally guaranteed freedom your son will receive sugar pacifiers to experience suck on which reduce his sexuality according to his own preferencespain perceptions. |url=http://www.pollockclinics.com/circumcision/circumcision-before. This is much like parental interference html |title=Before the Circumcision |last= |first= |publisher= |date=2011-04-08 |accessdate=2011-04-08}}</ref> but in at least one study, data shows that giving sugar to promote a prohibition child doesn't help to reduce the perception of masturbationpain in the child.<ref name="Lancet, or to inhibit The 2010-10-09">{{REFjournal |last=Slater |first=Rebeccah |init=R |first2=Laura |init2=L |last2=Cornelissen |first3=Lorenzo |init3=L |last3=Fabrizi |first4=Debbie |init4=D |last4=Patten |first5=Jan |init5=J |last5=Yoxen |first6=Alan |init6=A |last6=Worley |first7=Stewart |init7=S |last7=Boyd |first8=Judith |init8=J |last8=Meek |first9=Maria |init9=M |last9=Prof. Fitzgerald |title=Oral sucrose as an analgesic drug for procedural pain in newborn infants: a homosexual relationship randomised controlled trial |journal=The Lancet |volume=376 |issue=9748 |pages=1225-32 |url=http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2810%2961303- with the key difference 7/fulltext |quote=Our data suggest that the parental intervention oral sucrose does not significantly affect activity in form of a circumcisionneonatal brain or spinal cord nociceptive circuits, unlike prohibitions during childhood, will have and therefore might not be an irreversible, lifelong effecteffective analgesic drug. Both do The ability of sucrose to reduce clinical observational scores after noxious events in newborn infants should not comply with modern views of children's wellbe interpreted as pain relief. |pubmedID= |pubmedCID= |DOI= |date=2010-10-09 |accessdate=2011-04-08}}</ref> Post-being operative pain and accepting the pain the child as an autonomous individual, and aremust endure during recovery is hardly, thereforeif ever, not ethically justifiableaddressed by professionals.

The basic right to equal treatment of the sexes is also breached, since girls are legally protected from violations of their genital integrity, while boys are not. This not only contradicts the constitution, but also is contrary to all efforts of equal treatment. Because in this case, decisions are made during childhood It has been shown that will affect the entire later life, it equals the attempt to have certain educational grades open to one gender unconditionally, while giving parents the right to deny them an infant's response to the other gender [[pain]] can be altered for life. That such an unequal treatment years as a consequence of genders is not justifiable, neither legally nor morally, is obviouscircumcision.<ref>{{TaddioA etal 1995}}</ref><ref>{{TaddioA KatzJ IlersichAL KorenG 1997}}</ref>

Last not least{{Box|Boxtext=<big><b>However, religious freedom is impairednone of the above three procedures totally eliminate pain. If a A baby boy is circumcised for religious reasons as a child before he reaches the age will still experience some pain despite any of competence, he will carry the sign those analgesic procedures. Prevention of that religion on his body for his entire life [[pain]] requires protecting a boy from elective neonatal non- even if he decides to abjure that religion in therapeutic circumcision. Only boys who are protected from the course of his lifemedically unnecessary circumcision surgery experience no [[pain]] or [[trauma]].</b></big>}}

While his condition will not keep him from changing his religion== Risks and effects ==Just like tonsil or appendix surgery, or circumcision is a surgical intervention and brings the usual risks related to renounce it entirelysurgical operations, he has no way to discard the symbol alongside several specific risks of his old religioncomplications and late effects. Uberoi et al. This could be compared (2022) report "some men are experiencing a complex negative constellation of psychological, physical, and sexual associations that lead to significant emotional distress directed both internally and externally. The posts also reveal a tattoo in discovery phenomenon wherein men discover the form physical and psychological manifestations of a religious symbol, with the difference that such a tattoo could still be removed decisions made by laser or covered with others to modify their genitals."<ref name ="uberoi2022">{{REFjournal |last=Uberoi |first= |init=M |author-link= |last2=Abdulcadir |first2= |init2=J |author2-link= |last3=Ohi |first3= |init3=DA |author3-link= |last4=Santiago |first4= |init4=JE |author4-link= |last5= |first5= |init5= |author5-link= |last6= |first6= |init6= |author6-link= |last7= |first7= |init7= |author7-link= |last8= |first8= |init8= |author8-link= |last9= |first9= |init9= |author9-link= |etal=yes |title=Potentially under-recognized late-stage physical and psychosexual complications of non-therapeutic neonatal penile circumcision: a new tattoo, if need bequalitative and quantitative analysis of self-reports from an online community forum |trans-title= |language= |journal=Int J Impot Res |location= |date=2022-10-23 |volume= |issue= |article= |page= |pages= |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41443-022-00619-8 |archived= |quote= |pubmedID=36274189 |pubmedCID= |DOI=10.1038/s41443-022-00619-8 |accessdate=2023-01-08}}</ref>

Therefore a === Physical effects ===* [[Bodily harm]]* [[Circumcision scar]] is an invariable effect.* An unavoidable effect of any circumcision does not impair is the ability to change religion, but it makes it impossible to discard one's old religion entirelypermanent loss of sexual sensitivity. This is not only a violation partly due to the removal of sensory tissue. The [[foreskin]] contains very many nerve endings and touch receptors, which account for the major part of male sexual sensation. If the basic law[[foreskin]] is removed, it they can no longer provide sexual stimulation. It is also ethically unjustifiable partly due to force someone the fact that the surface of the [[Glans penis|glans]] reacts to carry the missing protection from friction and drying out by developing a religious symbol callus layer. This reduces the sensitivity of the remaining nerves in the [[Glans penis|glans]] gradually over the years. The study conducted by Sorrells et al.<ref>{{Sorrells etal 2007}}</ref> found a significant reduction of sensitivity to touch for his entire life - especially [[circumcised]] compared to [[intact]] [[penis]]es in his most private body areaadult males. Other studies revealed that [[circumcised]] men use condoms significantly less often than [[intact]] men, since they further limit the sexual sensitivity (see above).

So why * Painful tension can occur when there is circumcision tolerated as too little reserve [[skin]] left to support a means full [[erection]]<ref name="taylor1996"/>. This risk is partly dependent on the anatomy of the [[penis]]. While some [[penis]]es already have the majority of upbringingtheir full size when flaccid ([[Flesh Penis]], or "[[shower]]"), others are rather short when flaccid and even explicitly legalized? In Germanydouble or more their size during an [[erection]] ([[Blood Penis]], or "[[grower]]"). Especially in children's circumcision, this stems from - although it where the [[penis]] is not stated in the law for legal reasons - the belief that a ban would impair yet fully developed, the religious freedom amount of the parents. Even though it is stated reserve [[skin]] needed in Artadulthood cannot be estimated.140 GG (German basic law):

* Erectile dysfunction: Both the damage inflicted to the blood vessels in the [[foreskin]] and the reduced sexual sensitivity can be causes for reduced erectile function with advancing age.<blockquoteref>{{REFjournal''(1) Civic rights |last=Money |init=J |last2=Davison |init2=J |title=Adult penile circumcision: Erotosexual and duties are neither dependant on, nor impaired by, the exercise cosmetic sequelae |journal=Journal of religious freedom.''Sex Research |date=1983 |volume=19 |issue= |pages=289-92 |url= |accessdate=}}</ref>

''* Orgasm problems: In the wake of reduced sexual sensitivity, due to the loss of sensory tissue and gradual [[keratinization]] of the surface of the [[Glans penis|glans]], orgasm problems may develop with increasing age.In this case, the sexual arousal created by intercourse or [[masturbation]] is not enough to achieve orgasm.A preliminary stage of this late effect is the prolonged time [[circumcised]]] men need to reach an orgasm. This is often fielded as the "cut men have more endurance" argument for circumcision.* Vaginal dryness: Due to the loss of the natural [[gliding action]], which comes from the mobility of the [[foreskin]] and [[shaft skin]], a much increased friction between [[penis]] and [[vagina]] occurs during intercourse. This can make intercourse painful for both partners and lead to abrasions<ref>{{FrischM LindholmM GroenbaekM 2011}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Cortés-González |init=J |last2=Arratia-Maqueo |init2=J |last3=Gómez-Guerra |init3=L |title=Does circumcision has an effect on female''s perception of sexual satisfaction? |journal=Rev Invest Clin |date=2008 |volume=60 |issue=3 |page=227 |url= |pubmedID=18807735 |accessdate=}}</ref> The prolonged time it takes [[circumcised]] men to reach orgasm, as well as the often longer and more vigorous thrusting movements - compared to [[intact]] men - play a part in this.<ref name="ColdCJ TaylorJR 1999">{{ColdCJ TaylorJR 1999}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Fink |init=KS |last2=Carson |init2=CC |last3=DeVellis |init3=RF |title=Adult Circumcision Outcomes Study: Effect on Erectile Function, Penile Sensitivity, Sexual Activity and Satisfaction |journal=J Urol |date=2002 |volume=167 |issue=5 |pages=2113-6 |url= |accessdate=}}</ref>

''(4) No one may be forced to take part in * [[Lymphoedema]] of the penis is a religious act or ceremony, or to participation in religious rites or to the use normal and expected complication of a religious oathmale circumcision.''</blockquote>

Still* [[Meatal stenosis]], it was considered intolerable for the parents to be unable to perform a religious rite that involved interference with pathological narrowing of the body opening of another person - the [[urethra]], which mostly occurs in infancy and early childhood. It is one of the case most common complications of that person being their soninfant circumcision. While normally the religious freedom ends A study from 2006 found meatal stenosis exclusively in previously [[circumcised]] boys. The incidence rate after a circumcision is approximately 10 to 20 percent.<ref name="at someone else‘s nosevanhowe2006", an exemption was legalized to enable parents to comply with their own, personal, religious duties, even if that means that several >{{REFjournal |last=Van Howe |init=RS |author-link=Robert S. Van Howe |title=Incidence of their son's basic rights are impairedmeatal stenosis following neonatal circumcision in a primary care setting |journal=Clin Pediatr (Phila) |note=Jan-Feb 2006 |date=2006-01 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=49-54 |url=https://www. This does, however, not apply academia.edu/6992015/Incidence_of_Meatal_Stenosis_following_Neonatal_Circumcision_in_a_Primary_Care_Setting |accessdate=2019-12-15}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Stenram |init=A |last2=Malmfors |init2=G |last3=Okmian |init3=L |title=Circumcision for other religious traditions, so that [[phimosis]]: a ritual beating follow- no matter how religiously important it may be to the parents - is still considered child abuse up study |journal=Scandinavian journal of urology and would likely result in the loss of child custody herenephrology |date=1986 |volume=20 |issue=2 |page=89 |url= |pubmedID=3749823 |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{REFweb |url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1016016-overview |title=Meatal Stenosis |publisher=Medscape |accessdate=2019-10-11}}</ref>

=== Business Interests === Only very few will supposedly know that circumcision has become a lucrative business. Not only the operation itself, but also the potentially needed aftercare, bring profits. But while this is still obvious, there are also other trades that make money from it* Shorter adult penile length was reported by Park et al. Baby [[foreskin]]s are a coveted resource. Under the name "Apligraf" an artificial skin product is marketed worldwide, which is used - among other uses - as an alternative to skin grafts using the patient’s own skin. It is grown from the [[foreskin]]s of children as young as possible. Since they are also mostly free of pathogenic organisms, they are also used as the basis for collagen, which is, among other purposes, used for anti wrinkle therapy and for lip augmentation. The manufacturer of the british product "Vavelta" advertised with the use of "freshly harvested (!2016) [[foreskin]]s". It is ''inter alia'' used as a replacement for animal experiments testing the compatibility result of cosmetic productsNMC (newborn male circumcision). {{Citation |Title= |Text=In the face of the falling numbers of routine infant circumcisions in the USAconclusion, manufacturers have already expressed concerns that they might not "bring in enough harvest" more than 10 years ago. The parents of the circumcised boyssecond to fourth digit ratio, howeverflaccid penile length, very rarely know and age of the "secondary use" of their son's "donated" body partscircumcision were significant predictive factors for erectile penile length. While preimplantation genetic diagnosis, stem cell research and genetic engineering are time and again critically questioned and discussedFurthermore, the lifelong, significant modification penile lengths of infant bodies for the good NMC group were shorter than those of the cosmetic industry is still common practice non- supposedly partly because many women do not know what their augmented lips and wrinkleNMC group. |Author=Park et al. |Source= |ref=<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Park |first= |init=JK |author-free cheeks are made of link= |last2=Doo |first2= |init2=AR |author2- baby [[foreskin]]. An ethical justification cannot be valid here. link= |last3=Kim |first3= |init3=JH |author3-link= |last4=Park |first4= |init4=HS |author4-link= |etal=yes |title=Prospective investigation of penile length with newborn male circumcision and second to fourth digit ratio. |trans-title= |language= |journal=Can Urol Assoc J |location= |date=2016-09 |season= |volume=10 |issue=9-10 |article= |page={{FromIntactWiki |pages= | URLurl=httphttps://intactwikiwww.ncbi.nlm.orgnih.gov/wikipmc/articles/PMC5028213/Circumcision | Titlearchived= |quote= |pubmedID=27695583 |pubmedCID=5028213 |DOI=10.5489/cuaj.3590 |accessdate=Circumcision2022-09-04}}</ref>

=== Sexual effects ===Cepeda-Emiliani et al (2023) cited six reports in the literature of detrimental effects of circumcision, including erectile function, sensation, masturbatory pleasure, orgasm, and sexual satisfaction. The authors also cited three studies of severe distress in [[Image:Intact vs circumcised]] men, due to their infant circumcision, with complaints of [[glans]] insensitivity, delayed [[ejaculation]], and unpleasant sensation.JPG <ref name="cepeda2023">{{REFjournal |last=Cepe da-Emiliani |first= |init=A |author-link=Alfonso Cepeda-Emiliani |last2=Gándara-Cortés |first2= |init2=M |author2-link= |last3=Otero-Alén |first3= |init3=M |author3-link= |last4=García |first4= |init4=H |author4-link= |last5=Suárez-Quintanilla |first5= |init5=J |author5-link= |last6=García-Caballero |first6= |init6=T |author6-link= |last7=Gallego |first7= |init7=R |thumbnailauthor7-link= |rightlast8=García-Caballero |300pxfirst8= | The intact init8=R |author8-link= |etal=no |title=Immunohistological study of the density and circumcised distribution of human penis, side by sidepenile neural tissue: gradient hypothesis |trans-title= |language= |journal= Int J Impot Res |location= |date=2023-05-02 |volume=35 |issue=3 |article= |page= |pages=286-305 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41443-022-00561-9 |archived= |quote= |pubmedID=35501394 |pubmedCID= |DOI=10.]]1038/s41443-022-00561-9 |accessdate=2023-11-26}}</ref>

The term Circumcision and frenectomy remove tissues with heightened erogenous sensitivity.<ref name="circumcisioncepeda2023" /> <ref name=" without a gender qualifier refers specifically to male circumcision. It means winkleman1959"to cut around>{{WinkelmannRK 1959}}</ref> They concluded," and it refers Evidence has also started to the excision of the [[foreskin]] from the penis. Circumcision is most often performed accumulate that male circumcision may result in healthy males for [[Religion and Culture|religious or cultural]] reasons. The procedure may be performed on consenting adults, but it is most often performed on non-consenting minors, particularly newborn childrenlifelong physical, which is why the ritual is so controversial. Opponents of circumcision consider the circumcision of non-consenting minors to be unethical and a human rights violationsexual, unless there is concrete medical indication. Proponents of circumcision consider the circumcision of non-consenting minors to be a "religious freedom" and a "parental rightsometimes psychological harm as well."

The [[amputation]] of the prepuce results in the loss of the majority of fine-touch neuroreceptors found in the [[penis]], leaving only the uninhibited protopathic sensibility of the artificially externalized [[glans penis]]. The imbalance caused by not having the input from the now ablated fine-touch receptors may be a leading cause of the changes in sexual behavior noted in [[circumcised]] human males.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Van Howe |init= Rationale RS |author-link=Robert S. Van Howe |last2=Cold |init2=CJ |title=Advantages and Disadvantages of Neonatal Circumcision |journal=The Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=277 |issue=13 |pages=1052-7 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9218663 |quote= |pubmedID=9218663 |pubmedCID= |DOI= |date=1997-04-02 |accessdate=}}</ref>

Reasons Histology of the male circumcision scar shows [[amputation]] neuromas, Schwann cell proliferation and the bulbous collection of variably sized neurites. [[Amputation]] neuromas do not mediate normal sensation and are notorious for performing generating pain.<ref name="ColdCJ TaylorJR 1999"/> Cepeda-Emiliani et al. (2023) commented:<blockquote> Taking the sleve technique as an example of surgical flexibility during circumcision range widely , to the extent that this technique is of such versatility that it allows highly variable quantities of cutaneous and subcutaneous tissue to be excised directly from the penile body, and to the extent that the prepuce is still conceived by segments of the medical community as "just a small piece of skin", we are concerned that aggressive circumcisions are intentionally or unintentionally being performed in pediatric and adult patients in the belief that "redundant" or " extra" tissue is being excised, or in the belief that "excesive sensitivity" is being reduced to augment ejaculatory latency time.<ref name="cepeda2023" /></blockquote>The un-anesthetized and un-sedated newborn infant is restrained by culturebeing strapped to a special plastic board called the [[circumstraint]]. The procedure is most often an elective, religionnon-therapeutic surgery without [[medical indication]] performed on neonates and children for religious and cultural reasons in violation of the child's [[human rights]] to [[physical integrity]], locationbut in older patients may be rarely indicated for therapeutic reasons. It is a radical treatment option for pathological [[phimosis]], refractory [[balanoposthitis]] and agechronic [[urinary tract infection]]s (UTIs); it is contraindicated in cases of certain genital structure abnormalities or poor general health.

Many cultures perform === Psychological effects ===[[Psychological_issues_of_male_circumcision#Circumcision_trauma_in_adults| Psychological late effects]] are also possible after a circumcision as , especially if the operation was carried out in childhood. On this occasion a rite variety of passage into manhood[[trauma]] may occur, which depend, among others, on age and circumstances of the circumcision. This is common For example, whether the circumcision took place with or without sufficient anaesthesia, if the individual has been informed about the operation beforehand, if he was [[circumcised]] against his will or without his consent, and also, in the Middle East and amongst some indigenous African and Southeast Asian peoplescase of infant circumcision, if he was told about it during childhood or had to find it out coincidentally on his own.

The United States psychological late effects of circumcision are not yet fully researched, and Israel are the only industrialized countries in the world to have many studies took place on rather a high incidence of routine infant male circumcisionsmall scale. The vast majority of infant circumcisions performed in This situation needs to be rectified, because the United States are for non-religiousavailable studies, non-medical reasons. See [[History as well as the histories of Circumcision]]negatively affected men, suggest that these late effects may have more impact than previously assumed.

* It was observed that infants, following circumcision without [[pain]] control, had a disturbed bond with their mother<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Marshall |init=RE |last2=ReligiousPorter |init2=FL |last3=Rogers |init3=AG |etal=yesThe circumcision of newborn boys is seen as a divine commandment in the Jewish faith |title=Circumcision: II effects upon mother-infant interaction |journal=Early Hum Dev |date=1982 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=367-74 |url=https://www.cirp. Though absent in the Koranorg/library/birth/marshall2/ |accessdate=2020-02-01}}</ref>, male circumcision is considered a religious requirement in Islamas well as problems with nurturing, and it is performed on male children up to the point of varying agesrefusal to be fed. Converts to The sleeping habits of these faiths may babies were also choose to undergo circumcisiondisturbed, but it is not always requiredwith prolonged non-REM sleep and increased waking.

===Medical Indication===* In some casesboys [[circumcised]] in childhood, circumcision is legitimately indicated; a patient may [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] ([[PTSD]]) could be suffering recurring infections, and other methods of treatment have faileddiagnosed. In other casesa study on Philippine boys, a patient may be suffering from a severe case of in whom no [[phimosisPTSD]]. Overall, the actual medical necessity for circumcision is extremely rare. ====Arguments of Prophylaxia====Though the practice of ritual circumcision of males, both consenting and non-consenting, has existed for millenia, the search for "potential medical benefits" began relatively recently. Initially, circumcision was adopted as a way found prior to stop boys and men from masturbating, where mastubration was seen as the cause for many diseases. As the myth that circumcision prevented masturbation became debunkedoperation, advocates 69% of circumcision began the great search to find boys [[circumcised]] in the "medical benefits" of circumcision.  Male and female circumcision involves the removal and disruption of normal anatomical structures that are primary areas of sexual sensation.<ref>{{REFjournal | last=Taylor | first=J.R. | coauthors=A.P. Lockwood traditional ritual and A.J. Taylor | title=The prepuce: Specialized mucosa 51% of the penis and its loss to circumcision | journal=British Journal of Urology International | volume=77 | issue= | pages=291-95 | url=http://www.cirp.org/library/anatomy/taylor/ | quote= | pubmedID=8800902 | pubmedCID= | DOI= | date=1996-2 | accessdate=}}</ref> In the past, some advocates of mass circumcision have considered the prepuce to be a "mistake of nature,"<ref><nowiki>{{Cold and Wiswell (1995)}} | those [[Template:Cold and Wiswell circumcised]] by standard medical procedures (1995including anaesthesia)|see more]]</nowiki></p></ref> but this notion has no validity because fulfilled the DSM-IV criteria for PTSD following the prepuce is ubiquitous in primates and because it provides functional advantagesoperation.<ref>{{REFbook |last=ColdRamos |firstinit=ChristopherS |last2=McGrath |first2=KennethBoyle |author2-linkinit2=Ken McGrathGJ |year=19992001 |title=Male and female Understanding circumcision: medical, legal, and ethical considerations in pediatric practiceA Multi-Disciplinary Approach to a Multi-Dimensional Problem |url=httphttps://wwwlink.cirpspringer.orgcom/librarychapter/anatomy10.1007/cold978-1-4757-3351-mcgrath/8_14

|editoreditors=[[George C. Denniston]], [[Frederick M. Hodges]], [[Marilyn Fayre Milos]]

|chapter=Anatomy Ritual and histology medical circumcision among Filipino boys: evidence of the penile and clitoral prepuce in primatespost-traumatic stress disorder |pages=253-70

|publisher=Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers |isbn=0306461315

[[Intact America]] (2019) called circumcision an [[Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)| adverse childhood experience]],<ref name-"bollinger2019">{{REFdocument |title=Child genital cutting as an adverse childhood experience |url=http://adversechildhoodexperiences.net/CGC_as_an_ACE.pdf |last=Bollinger |first=Dan |author-link=Dan Bollinger |last2=Chapin |first2=Georganne |author2-link=Circumcision methodsGeorganne Chapin |publisher=Intact America |location=Tarrytown |format=PDFCircumcision is performed in many ways which vary by culture, the person performing it, and the age of the subject. It may be performed by a specialized ritual circumciser in a non |date=2019-medical setting, or a medical practitioner at a hospital or clinic. In some cultures, only the protruding end of the foreskin is cut off, and in others, the entire foreskin which covers the glans is removed. Some circumcisers take more skin than others, resulting in a "loose" or "tight" circumcision.08 |accessdate=2021-11-02Generally, the foreskin is pulled forward and enough of it is removed to permanently expose the glans of the penis. Sometimes a protective device is used to avoid hurting the glans, and sometimes the circumciser simply performs the procedure freehand. In adults, stitches are used to stop the bleeding and help close the wound. In infants, circumcisers often use a clamp that crushes the foreskin and seals the wound, eliminating the need for stitches.}}</ref>

=== Pain Possible operative and postoperative complications ===In the past, advocates Circumcision is surgery. Surgical complications of circumcision claimed that a newborn child's nerve system was not yet fully developedgenerally may be classified as [[Bleeding| hemorrhage]], [[infection]], or surgical misadventure up to and that as a result, including loss of the child felt penis and [[death]].<ref name="deacon2022" /><ref name="williams-kapilla1993">{{REFjournal |last=Williams |init=N |author-link= |last2=Kapilla |init2=L |author2-link= |etal=no pain during the |title=Complications of circumcision procedure |trans-title= |language= |journal=Brit J Surg |location= |date=1993-10 |volume=80 |issue=10 |pages=1231-6 |url=https://www.cirp. Research has shown that newborn children do in fact feel pain, and more acutely than adultsorg/library/complications/williams-kapila/ |quote= |pubmedID=8242285 |pubmedCID= |DOI=10. This has led American health associations to recommend doctors take measures to reduce the pain of circumcision in infants1002/bjs.1800801005 |accessdate=2019-11-27}}</ref>

The [[Position Statements on Infant Circumcision|AAP Circumcision Policy Statement]] states quite clearly that ''"There is considerable evidence that * Intolerance or allergic reactions to the narcotics used.* Especially in newborns who are circumcised without analgesia experience pain and physiologic stress"''. Furthermore, where the bodily pain reduction mechanisms are not yet fully developed, local anaesthesia is quite severe, and requires injections often insufficient for proper pain management. Sucrose and Acetaminophen ''"cannot be recommend as the sole method of analgesia"''operation. Topical cream is no longer thought sufficient as ''"the analgesic effect is limited during the phases associated Even in conjunction with extensive tissue trauma such as...tightening regional anaesthesia of the clamp"''.<ref>American Academy dorsal nerve of Pediatrics: Circumcision Policy Statement; Task Force on Circumcision" Pediatrics Vol 103 No.3 March 1999, pp.686-693. (Statement Reaffirmed Sept. 1, 2005)."</ref> The AAFP states quite simply in their the [[Position Statements on Infant Circumcision|position paperpenis]], ''"Newborns experience pain during circumcision".''<ref>"Circumcision: Position Paper on Neonatal Circumcision. Board Approved: August 2007 Reaffirmed". Official American Academy the rate of Family Physicians Website. http://www.aafp.org/online/en/home/clinical/clinicalrecs/children/circumcision.html. Accessed 5/2/2011.</ref> This is not a debatable fact, and yet, it is not widely accepted, failure to provide sufficient anaesthetic even by some doctors. It might be hard for some doctors to accept, as they may have been taught that the infant does not feel pain, and may have performed countless circumcisions with this idea. Usage of anesthesia for infant circumcision experienced anaesthetists is still by no means the rule. Penile injections of anesthetic are now recommended by all of the major medical institutions. In their [http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/no-index/about5-ama/13585.shtml Report 10 of the Council on Scientific Affairs], the AMA states ''"When the decision is made to proceed with circumcision, local anesthesia should be provided for the procedure. Ring block or dorsal penile blocks [injections] are most effective. EMLA cream has limited utility"''. Alarmingly, ''"Despite the clear evidence that newborn males generate brisk pain responses during circumcision, a recent survey of residency training programs found that 26% of programs that taught circumcision provided no instruction on the use of local anesthesia". The AMA reports general anaesthesia that "Of physicians performing circumcisionwould be needed for newborns, 45% use anesthesiahowever, 71% of pediatricians, 56% of family practitioners, and 25% of obstetricians"''.<ref>"Report 10 of poses significant risks for the Council on Scientific Affairs (I-99): Neonatal Circumcision". American Medical Association Official Website. http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/no-index/about-ama/13585.shtml. Accessed May 4, 2011.</ref> The AAP's [http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/prenatal/decisions-to-make/pages/Where-We-Stand-Circumcision.aspx Heatlhy Children website] suggests ''"Your pediatrician (or your obstetrician) should discuss the forms of analgesia that are available"''.<ref>Where We Stand: Circumcision". AAP Official Website. 03/23/2011. http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/prenatal/decisions-to-make/pages/Where-We-Stand-Circumcision.aspx</ref> Be that as it may, few forms of analgesia are recommended. There are basically two types of injections to choose fromchild, and the website does not go into the difference between a 'dorsal nerve block' and a 'ring block' injection. Given what is known from aforementioned official documents, the AAP website may be more informative and effective if it would say ''"Make sure your doctor knows of the ineffectiveness of anything short of local anesthesiatherefore, and make sure your baby is given an injection. This is your responsibility, because your doctor may or may not be up only likely to date on the latest understandings of infant sensitivity to pain during circumcision."'' The AAP may be holding back, however, perhaps because this would upset the doctor/parent power relationship, and may cause too much questioning of doctors used in generalemergencies. One may not expect A surgical operation without proper [[pain]] control can lead to find this kind the development of advice on such a website, and yet, anything less than this is a dangerously weak statement. To control specific pain, some physicians that circumcise use Tylenol, sugar,memory<ref>{{REFweb | quote=To calm the baby during the procedure, a sugar filled gauze pacifier soaked with sweet juice is used, and soothing music is played in the room. | url=http://www.pollockclinicsspiegel.comde/spiegel/circumcisionvorab/circumcisionexperte-warnt-rituelle-beschneidung-veraendert-das-gehirn-der-kinder-a-guide849534.html | title=Parents' Guide to Circumcision | last= | first= | publisher= | work= | date=Kinderschmerz-Experte warnt: Rituelle Beschneidung verändert das Gehirn der Kinder | accessdate=2011trans-04-08}}</ref><ref>{{REFweb | quotetitle=During the circumcision, your son will receive sugar pacifiers to suck on which reduce his Children's pain perceptions. | url=httpexpert warns://www.pollockclinics.com/Ritual circumcision/circumcision-before.htmlchanges the brain of children | titlelanguage=Before the CircumcisionGerman | last=Prof. Dr. med. Boris Zernikow | first= | publisher=Spiegel Online | workwebsite= | date=20112012-0408-0812 | accessdate=20112019-0410-08}}</ref> a topical cream,<ref>{{REFweb11 | quoteformat=Then in our office, he will have topical anesthetic applied to his penis. | url=http://www.pollockclinics.com/circumcision/circumcision-before.html | title=Before the Circumcision | last= | first= | publisherquote= | work= | date=2011-04-08 | accessdate=2011-04-08}}</ref> . In unsedated and/or a local anaesthetic injection called a dorsal penile ring blockpartially sedated infants increased secretion of the stress hormone cortisol could be observed for months after the operation.<ref>{{REFweb | quote=We use extensive pain control methods including TylenolOverall, a sugar solution (to reduce their pain perceptions), a topical freezing cream, threshold was lower and a local anesthetic injection. | url=http://www.pollockclinics.com/circumcision/circumcision-guide.html | title=Parents' Guide to Circumcision | last= | first= | publisher= | work= | date= | accessdate=2011-04-08}}</ref> Topical anaesthetic only serves to numb the area to lessen the risk of chronic pain increased. Regardless of the injectionthese findings, but studies have shown that a dorsal penile ring block is not always effective in stopping the pain of circumcision.infant circumcisions with insufficient or no anaesthetic are still common practice<ref name='Journal of Perinatology April/May 2002'>{{REFjournal | last=Taeusch | first=H WilliamGarry | coauthorsinit=Alma M Martinez, J Colin Partridge, Susan Sniderman, Jennifer Armstrong-Wells, Elena Fuentes-AfflickT | title=Pain During Mogen or PlastiBell Circumcision | journal=Journal : a survey of Perinatologyfees and practices | volume=22 | issue=3 | pages=214-218 | url=http://www.nature.com/jp/journal/v22/n3/full/7210653a.html | quote=...more than half of the study group had what we considered excessive pain/discomfort over the course of the entire procedure. | pubmedID= | pubmedCID= | DOI=OBG Management | date=April/May 2002 | accessdate=2011-04-08}}</ref><ref name='Clinical Pediatrics August 1986'>{{REFjournal | last=Williamson | first=Paul S. | coauthors=Nolan Donovan Evans | title=Neonatal Cortisol Response to Circumcision with Anesthesia | journal=Clinical Pediatrics1994 | volume=25October | issue=8 | pages=41234-4166 | url=http://cpj.sagepub.com/content/25/8/412.abstract | quote=The adrenal cortisol response to surgery was not significantly reduced by the administration of lidocaine. | pubmedID= | pubmedCID= | DOI= | date=August 1986 | accessdate=2011-04-08}}</ref> During circumcision, somp physicians give children sugar pacifiers to "reduce the perception of pain",<ref>{{REFwebREFjournal | quotelast=During the circumcision, your son will receive sugar pacifiers to suck on which reduce his pain perceptions.Howard | urlinit=http://www.pollockclinics.com/circumcision/circumcision-before.htmlCR | titlelast2=Before the CircumcisionHoward | lastinit2=FM | firstlast3=Garfunkel | publisherinit3=LC | worklast4=de Blieck | dateinit4=2011-04-08EA | accessdatelast5=2011-04-08}}</ref> but in at least one study, data shows that giving sugar to a child doesn't help to reduce the perception of pain in the child.<ref name='Lancet, The 2010-10-09'>{{REFjournalWeitzman | lastinit5=Slater | first=Rebeccah | coauthors=Laura Cornelissen, Lorenzo Fabrizi, Debbie Patten, Jan Yoxen, Alan Worley, Stewart Boyd, Judith Meek, Prof Maria FitzgeraldM | title=Oral sucrose as an analgesic drug for procedural Neonatal circumcision and pain in newborn infantsrelief: a randomised controlled trialcurrent training practices | journal=The Lancet | volume=376 | issue=9748 | pages=1225-1232 | url=http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2810%2961303-7/fulltext | quote=Our data suggest that oral sucrose does not significantly affect activity in neonatal brain or spinal cord nociceptive circuits, and therefore might not be an effective analgesic drug. The ability of sucrose to reduce clinical observational scores after noxious events in newborn infants should not be interpreted as pain relief. | pubmedID= | pubmedCID= | DOI=Pediatrics | date=2010-10-09 | accessdate=2011-04-08}}</ref> Post-operative pain and the pain the child must endure during recovery is hardly, if ever, addressed by professionals. It has been shown that an infant's response to pain can be altered for years as a consequence of circumcision.<ref>{{REFjournal | last=Taddio | first=Anna | coauthors=Morton Goldbach, Moshe Ipp, Bonnie Stevens, Gideon Koren | title=Effect of neonatal circumcision on pain responses during vaccination in boys | journal=The Lancet1998 | volume=345101 | issue=8945 | pages=291423-28 | url=http://www.cirp.org/library/pain/taddio/ | quote= | pubmedID=7837863 | pubmedCID= | DOI= | date=1995 | accessdate=

| last=TaddioStang | firstinit=HJ |last2=Snellman |init2=LW |title=Circumcision practice patterns in the United States |journal=Pediatrics |date=1998 |volume=101 |issue=e5 |pages= |url= |accessdate=Anna | coauthorsnote=Katz JLink to [[AAP]] website}}</ref>. During procedures which take several minutes, babies tend to fall into a state of stupor, which in the past was falsely interpreted as peaceful sleep, Ilersich ALnurturing the belief that babies felt no pain. Measurements taken in those cases revealed a typically 3- to 4-fold increase in cortisol levels, Koren Gwhich equals a state of severe [[shock]].<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Gunnar |init=MR |last2=Fisch |init2=RO |last3=Korsvik |init3=S |last4=Donhowe |init4=JM | title=Effects The effects of neonatal circumcision on pain response during subsequent routine vaccinationserum cortisol and behavior | journal=The LancetPsychoneuroendocrinology |date=1981 | volume=3496 | issue=90523 | pages=599269-60375 | url=httphttps://www.thelancetcirp.comorg/journalslibrary/lancetpain/articlegunnar/PIIS0140 |accessdate=2019-6736(96)1031611-026}}</fulltextref>* Postoperative wound pain, in the case of children's circumcisions conceivably worsened by the forceful breaking of the preputial adhesions.* Postoperative pain from the exposure of the sensitive glans penis to clothing. This pain will endure for several weeks or even longer in some cases.* Postoperative [[bleeding]] of the wound. This can have severe consequences especially for very young infants, if they are not treated promptly. Their blood volume is only about 85 ml per kilogram of body weight, and even moderate blood loss can lead to hypovolaemia, hypovolaemic [[shock]] and even death.<ref>{{REFbook |last= |first= |year=2000 |title=Paediatric Handbook |url= |work= |editors=Smart J, Nolan T. |edition=6 |volume= |chapter= |page=82 |location={{AUSC|VIC}}, Australia |publisher=Blackwell Science Asia |isbn= | quote= | pubmedIDaccessdate= |note=}}</ref><ref>{{REFdocument |title=Autopsy of Demetrius Manker |url= |contribution=Case 93-1711 |last=Wetli |first=CV |publisher=Miami: Dade County Medical Examiner Department |format= |date=1993-06-23 |accessdate=}}</ref> <ref>{{REFjournal |last=Hiss |init=J |last2=Horowitz |init2=A |last3=Kahana |init3=T |title=Fatal haemorrhage following male ritual circumcision |journal=J Clin Forensic Med |date=2000 |volume=7 |issue=9057731 | pubmedCIDpages=32-4 | DOIurl=10https://www.1016cirp.org/library/death/S0140hiss1/ |accessdate=2019-6736(96)1031611-06}}</ref><ref>{{REFdocument |title=Judgement of inquiry into the death of McWillis, Ryleigh Roman Bryan |url=http://www.circumstitions.com/death-0exsang.html |contribution= |last=Newell |first=TEC |publisher=Burnaby, B.C.: B.C. Coroner's Service |format= | date=March 19972004-01-19 | accessdate=2019-11-26

 === Sexual effects === Circumcision and frenectomy remove tissues with heightened erogenous sensitivity. Boyle ''et al.'' (2002) wrote, "the genitally intact male has thousands of fine touch receptors and other highly erogenous nerve endings&mdash;many of which are lost to circumcision."<ref>{{REFjournal | last=Boyle | first=Gregory J* Post operative [[lymphoedema]]. * Postoperative [[Infection| coauthors=Gillian Ainfections]]. Bensley | title=Adverse Sexual and Psychological Effects of Male Infant Circumcision | journal=Psychological reports | volume=88 | issue=3This includes both local infections, Part 2 | pages=1105–1106 | url=http://www.cirp.org/library/psych/boyle5/ | quote= | pubmedID=11597060 | pubmedCID= | DOI=10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1085.x | date=July 2001 | accessdate=}}</ref> They concluded, "Evidence has also started to accumulate that male circumcision may result in lifelong physical, sexualwhich can be treated with local therapy, and sometimes psychological harm as well." The amputation of the prepuce results in the loss of the majority of fine-touch neuroreceptors found in the penissystemic infections, leaving only the uninhibited protopathic sensibility of the artificially externalized glans penis. The imbalance caused by not having the input from the now ablated fine-touch receptors may be a leading cause of the changes in sexual behavior noted in circumcised human malesrequiring systemic antibiotic treatment.<ref>{{REFjournalREFconference | last=Van HoweDr. med. Hartmann | first=RSWolfgang | coauthorsurl=Cold CJ | titleplace=Advantages and Disadvantages of Neonatal Circumcision | journal=The Journal Rechtsausschuss des Bundestages [Legal Committee of the American Medical AssociationBundestag] (German) | volume=277 | issue=13 | pages=1052-7 | urltitle=http://wwwStellungnahme zur Anhörung am 26.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9218663 | quote= | pubmedID=9218663 | pubmedCID= | DOI=November 2012 [Opinion on the hearing on 26 November 2012] (German) | date=19972012-0411-0226 | accessdate=

* [[Wound dehiscence]], meaning the separation of the edges of the wound or the tissue after suturing.Histology * Adhesion between the surface or rim of the male [[Glans penis|glans]] with the neighbouring [[penile skin]], causing [[skin]] pockets and bridges, as well as visually unpleasant results like uneven scars, which make a re-circumcision scar shows amputation neuromasnecessary.* Postoperative [[phimosis]]: a phimotic ring can develop during scarring, Schwann cell proliferation and the bulbous collection of variably sized neuriteswhich makes a re-circumcision necessary. Amputation neuromas do not mediate normal sensation and are notorious for generating painAccording to a study by Blalock et al.<ref>{{REFjournal | last=ColdBlalock |init=HJ |last2=Vemulakonda |init2=V |last3=Ritchey |init3=ML |last4=Ribbeck |init4=M |title=Outpatient management of [[phimosis]] Following newborn circumcision |journal=J Urol |date=2003 |volume=169 | firstissue=6 |pages=2332-4 |url=Chttps://www.Jcirp.org/library/complications/blalock1/ | coauthorsaccessdate=J2019-11-26}}</ref>, the prevalence is 2.R. Taylor9%, according to Leitch<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Leitch |init=IOW | title=The prepuceCircumcision - a continuing enigma | journal=British Journal of Urology InternationalAust Paediatr J |date=1970 | volume=836 | issue= | pages=3459-4465 | url=httphttps://www.cirp.org/library/anatomygeneral/leitch1/cold |accessdate=2019-taylor12-15}}</ref> 5.5%.* [[Sudden Infant Death Syndrome]] (SIDS).* Knot formation of the veins. If the dorsal vein, which originates in the tip of the [[foreskin]], is cut during circumcision without being clamped and sutured at its origin separately, it starts to develop new branches over time, which can lead to the development of knots.* Possible deformities due to circumcision include hypoplasia of the [[penis]] (micro-penis) and induratio [[penis]] plastica (skewed penis).* Medical malpractice can also not be ruled out. Injuries, partly or entirely severing the [[Glans penis|glans]] or the [[penis]] can occur.* In rare cases, [[necrosis]], gangrene, ischaemia, keloid formation, and circulatory problems may also occur.* When the circumcision is followed by the ultra-orthodox Jewish ritual of Metzitzah B'Peh (which consists of sucking blood from the wound with the mouth), there is a risk of infection with [[herpes]] simplex type 1, which can lead to brain damage or [[death]].<ref>{{REFweb | quoteurl=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/08/nyregion/infants-death-renews-debate-over-a-circumcision-ritual.html?_r=0 | pubmedIDtitle=10349413Baby’s Death Renews Debate Over a Circumcision Ritual | pubmedCIDlast=Robbins | DOIfirst=Liz | date=19992012-103-07 | accessdate=2019-10-11

A study in 2010 estimated approximately 117 neonatal circumcision-related [[Death| deaths ]] occur annually in the [[United States]], about one out of every 77 male neonatal deaths, more than suffocation, auto accidents, or even [[SIDS]].<refname="Bollinger 2010">{{REFjournal | last=Bollinger | first=Dan | coauthorsinit=D |author-link=Dan Bollinger |last2=Boy's Health Advisory | title=Lost Boys: An Estimate of U.S. Circumcision-Related Infant Deaths | journal=Thymos: Journal of Boyhood Studies | volume=4 | issue=1 | pages=78-90 | url=http://www.mensstudies.com/content/b64n267w47m333x0/?p=7ebbd6b446d940cbbd4274c095754b12π=5 | quote= | pubmedID= | pubmedCID= | DOI=10.3149/thy.0401.78 | date=2010-04-26 | accessdate=2019-10-12

| quote= | url=http://www.icgi.org/2010/04/infant-circumcision-causes-100-deaths-each-year-in-us | title=Infant circumcision causes 100 deaths each year in US | last= | first= | publisher=ICGI | website=[[International Coalition for Genital Integrity]] | date=2010-04-26 | accessdate=}}</ref>See also the list of [[fatalities]].

 <!--=== United States Military military === American soldiers serving in World War II were subjected to regular inspections of their genitals. If uncircumcisedintact, the soldiers risked being ordered to undergo immediate circumcision.<ref>{{REFbook

|pages=72-733

}}</ref> This practice was discontinued at least six decades ago.-->=== Non-therapeutic circumcision of male children === Human babies, because they are not yet in possession of language, are incapable of giving or refusing consent to be [[circumcised]]. The element of force has led some scholars to view the circumcision of baby boys as a category of forced circumcision.<ref>For example, Frederick M. Hodges, a medical historian, writes: "In the late 1970s, as the Americans were growing increasingly aware of the abuses of power rampant throughout the nation's social institutions, influential grass-roots movements protesting the forced circumcision of American children sprang up nationwide." F. Hodges, "A Short History," p. 31; see also [[Leonard B. Glick|Glick]], ''Marked in Your Flesh'', pp. 273-281.</ref> There are, however, physicians in the United States who argue strongly for non-therapeutic circumcision of newborn babies; and circumcision is widely accepted as a postnatal procedure in American hospitals.<ref>{{REFbook |last=Fletcher |first=Christopher R. |init=CR |year=1999 |title=Circumcision in America in 1998: Attitudes, Beliefs, and Charges of American Physicians |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/h2150v731233m177/ |work=Male and Female Circumcision |editors=[[George C. Denniston]], [[Frederick M. Hodges]], [[Marilyn Fayre Milos]] |edition= |volume= |chapter=Section 5 |pages=259-71 |location=New York |publisher=Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers |isbn= |quote= |accessdate=2019-10-12 |note=ID 10.1007/978-0-585-39937-9_19}}</ref> Parental consent is required.<ref>See, e.g., Shephard and Shephard, ''The Complete Guide'', p. 125.</ref> A statement published by the [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] in 1999 claimed that "parents should determine what is in the best interest of the child... It is legitimate for parents to take into account cultural, religious, and ethnic traditions, in additions to the medical factors, when making a decision."<ref>Lannon and Bailey, "Circumcision Policy Statement," p. 691.</ref> however surrogate consent for non-therapeutic circumcision is now viewed as unethical.

In the [[United Kingdom]], where non-therapeutic circumcision has now become far less prevalent than in the [[United States]], the written consent of both parents is required, if a physician is to perform a non-therapeutic circumcision of a child.<ref>{{REFjournal |last= |first= |title=Re J (child's religious upbringing and circumcision) |journal=Family Court Reports |date=2000 |volume=1 |issue= |pages=307-14 |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/legal/Re_J/2000.html |accessdate=2019-10-12}}</ref> (The National Health Service does not provide non-therapeutic circumcision.) In recent years, legal writers in several English-speaking countries have been questioning the practice of acceding to parental wishes.<ref>See, e.g., [[Margaret A. Somerville|Somerville]], "Therapeutic and Non-Therapeutic Medical Procedures"; Poulter, ''English Criminal Law''; [[Abbie Chessler|Chessler]], "Justifying the Unjustifiable"; Smith, "Male Circumcision."</ref> For example, critics have pointed out that, in the [[United States]], more than 1.3% of male neonatal deaths are attributable to the complications of non-therapeutic circumcision surgery.<ref name="Bollinger 2010"/>==Video=====Is circumcision healthy?===The video ''Is Circumcision Healthy'' is recommended for parental viewing.<br><br> <youtube>D_3LQjZgdbQ</youtube> ===Dr. Christopher Guest discusses circumcision===<br><youtube>v=TQIp9f4krVQ</youtube> ===Plastibel circumcision=== {{UNI|Stanford University|SU}} has published a video of an actual non-therapeutic plastibell circumcision. The infant has received two injections of local anesthesia to deaden the dorsal nerves. The ventral nerves were not deadened so the infant still feels pain. One can his cries on the soundtrack.* [https://med.stanford.edu/newborns/professional-education/circumcision/plastibell-technique.html Plastibell Technique] ===Gomco clamp circumcision=== '''Not for the squeamish:''' This is a video of an actual circumcision with a Gomco clamp. The infant boy received two dorsal penile nerve block (DPNB) analgesic injections but they did not seem to work. * [https://www.reddit.com/r/Intactivism/comments/qbpzqr/trained_medical_professionals_restrain_infant_to/ Circumcision video] ==Recommendations of medical authorities==* [[George Hill| Hill]] (2007) said:<blockquote>Male circumcision is harmful because it excises healthy tissue and permanently impairs beneficial physiological functions. Male circumcision also causes psychological problems that tend to perpetuate the cycle of abuse. Male circumcision is a costly diversion of medical resources away from beneficial services. Male circumcision violates legal rights, [[human rights]], and ethical standards. Finally, we must remember that males are the more vulnerable and sensitive of the two genders and, therefore, deserve the greater degree of protection from traumatic, invasive, injurious,and unnecessary surgery. For all of these reasons the non-therapeutic circumcision of boys should not be performed and the [[genital integrity]] of all children should be respected and protected.<ref name="hill2007">{{REFjournal |last=Hill |first=George |init=G |author-link=George Hill |title=The case against circumcision |journal=Journal of Men's Health and Gender |date=2007 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=318-23 |url=https://www.academia.edu/8367383/The_Case_Against_Circumcision |quote= |pubmedID= |pubmedCID= |DOI= |accessdate=2021-05-30}}</ref></blockquote>* Andrew E. MacNeiiy, Head, Division of Pediatric Urology, Department of Urological Sciences, {{UNI|University of British Columbia|UBC}}, Vancouver, BC, (2008) said:<blockquote>Newborn circumcision remains an area of controversy. Social, cultural, aesthetic and religious pressures form the most common reasons for non-therapeutic circumcision. Although penile cancer and UTIs are reduced compared with uncircumcised males, the incidence of such illness is so low that circumcision cannot be justified as prophylaxis. The role of the foreskin in [[HIV]] transmission in developed countries is unclear, and safe sexual practice remains the cornerstone of prevention. There remains a lack of knowledge regarding what constitutes the normal foreskin both among parents and among primary care providers. This lack of knowledge results in a burden of costs to our health care system in the form of unnecessary urological referrals, expansion of wait times and circumcisions. Routine circumcision of all infants is not justified from a health or cost-benefit perspective.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=MacNeily |first=Andrew |init= |author-link= |etal=no |title=Routine circumcision: the opposing view |trans-title= |language= |journal=Can Urol Assoc J |location= |date=2007-11 |volume=1 |issue=4 |article= |page= |pages=395-7 |url=http://europepmc.org/article/PMC/2422979 |pubmedID=18542825 |pubmedCID= |DOI=10.5489/cuaj.455 |accessdate=2021-11-08}}</ref></blockquote> * The [[Royal Dutch Medical Association]] (KNMG) (2010) said: <blockquote>The official viewpoint of KNMG and other related medical/scientific organisations is that non-therapeutic circumcision of male minors is a violation of children’s rights to autonomy and physical integrity. Contrary to popular belief, circumcision can cause complications – [[bleeding]], infection, [[urethra]]l stricture and panic attacks are particularly common. KNMG is therefore urging a strong policy of deterrence. KNMG is calling upon doctors to actively and insistently inform parents who are considering the procedure of the absence of medical benefits and the danger of complications.<ref>{{REFdocument |title= Non-therapeutic circumcision of male minors |url=https://www.doctorsopposingcircumcision.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/knmg-non-therapeutic-circumcision-of-male-minors-27-05-2010.pdf |contribution= |last= |first= |publisher=Royal Dutch Medical Association |format=PDF |date=2010 |accessdate=2021-11-08}}</ref></blockquote> * The [[Royal Australasian College of Physicians]] (2010) said: <blockquote>Ethical and [[human rights]] concerns have been raised regarding elective infant male circumcision because it is recognised that the foreskin has a functional role, the operation is non-therapeutic and the infant is unable to consent.  After reviewing the currently available evidence, the RACP believes that the frequency of diseases modifiable by circumcision, the level of protection offered by circumcision and the complication rates of circumcision do not warrant routine infant circumcision in Australia and New Zealand. However it is reasonable for parents to weigh the benefits and risks of circumcision and to make the decision whether or not to circumcise their sons.<ref name="racp2010">{{REFdocument |title=Circumcision of Infant Males |url=https://www.racp.edu.au//docs/default-source/advocacy-library/circumcision-of-infant-males.pdf |contribution= |last= |first= |publisher=The Royal Australasian College of Physicians |format=PDF |date=2010-09-01 |accessdate=2021-11-08}}</ref></blockquote> * The [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] (AAP) has not re-affirmed its disastrous, failed 2012 Circumcision Policy Statement, which expired in 2017, so currently has no position on child circumcision. * Medical historian [[Robert Darby]] (2014) wrote simply:<blockquote>"To avoid circumcision complications, avoid circumcision."<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Darby |first= |init=R |author-link=Robert Darby |etal=no |title=To avoid circumcision complications, avoid circumcision |trans-title= |language= |journal=Can Urol Assoc J |location= |date=2014-08-14 |volume=8 |issue=7-8 |article= |page=231 |pages= |url=https://cuaj.ca/index.php/journal/article/view/1709/1823 |archived= |quote= |pubmedID= |pubmedCID= |DOI=10.5489/cuaj.1709 |accessdate=2022-12-16}}</ref></blockquote>* The [[Canadian Paediatric Society]] (CPS) (2015) said: <blockquote>In most jurisdictions, authority is limited only to interventions deemed to be medically necessary. In cases in which medical necessity is not established or a proposed treatment is based on personal preference, interventions should be deferred until the individual concerned is able to make their own choices.<ref name="CPS2015">{{REFjournal |last=Sorokin |first=S. Todd |init=ST |author-link= |last2=Finlay |first2=JC |author2-link= |last3=Jeffries |first3=AL |author3-link= |etal=yes |title=Newborn male circumcision |journal=Paediatr Child Health |location= |date=2015-08 |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=311-20 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4578472/ |quote= |pubmedID=26435672 |pubmedCID=4578472 |DOI=10.1093/pch/20.6.311 |accessdate=2019-10-27}}</ref></blockquote> * The [[Canadian Urological Association]] (CUA) considered the matter of circumcision and issued a statement in February 2018. The CUA concluded: <blockquote>"Given the socioeconomic, educational status, and health demographics of our population, universal neonatal circumcision cannot be justified based on the current evidence available.<ref name="cua2018">{{REFjournal |last=Dave |first=Sumit |init=S |author-link= |etal=yes |title=Canadian Urological Association guideline on the care of the normal foreskin and neonatal circumcision in Canadian infants (abridged version) |journal=Can Urol Assoc J |location= |date=2018-02 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=18-28 |url=https://cuaj.ca/index.php/journal/article/view/5034/3470 |quote= |pubmedID= |pubmedCID= |DOI= |accessdate=2021-11-09}}</ref></blockquote>==British family court opinion==The issue of non-therapeutic circumcision of male children came before the court in the case of ''[[Re B and G (children ) (No 2) EWFC 3]] (2015)'' . In that case, Judge Sir James Munby ruled that circumcision of male children caused ''significant harm''. ==Rights and ethics == The [[Rights situation on circumcision|rights situation]] is discussed in a separate article. [[Image:Intact vs circumcised.JPG |thumbnail|right|300px| The intact and circumcised human penis, side by side.]]

Human babies, because they are not yet in possession of language, are incapable of giving or refusing consent for being circumcised. The element of force has led some scholars to view the term "circumcision of baby boys as " without a category of forced gender qualifier refers specifically to male circumcision.<ref>For example, Frederick M. Hodges, a medical historianIt means "to cut around, writes: "In and it refers to the late 1970s, as the Americans were growing increasingly aware [[excision]] of the abuses of power rampant throughout the nation's social institutions, influential grass-roots movements protesting the forced circumcision of American children sprang up nationwide." F. Hodges, "A Short History," p. 31; see also [[Leonard B. Glick|Glickforeskin]], ''Marked in Your Flesh'', pp. 273-281.</ref> There are, however, physicians in from the United States who argue strongly for routine circumcision of newborn babies; and circumcision is widely accepted as a postnatal procedure in American hospitals.<ref>{{REFbook | last=Fletcher | first=Christopher R. | year=1999 | title=Circumcision in America in 1998: Attitudes, Beliefs, and Charges of American Physicians | url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/h2150v731233m177/ | work= | editor= | edition= | volume= | chapter=Section 5 | pages=259-271 | location=New York | publisher=Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers | isbn= | quote= | accessdate= | note=ID 10penis.1007/978-0-585-39937-9_19}}</ref> Parental consent is required.<ref>See, e.g., Shephard and Shephard, ''The Complete Guide'', p. 125.</ref> A statement published by the American Academy of Pediatrics in 1999 declares that "parents should determine what term is in the best interest of the child... It is legitimate for parents to take into account cultural, religious, inaccurate and ethnic traditions, in additions to the medical factors, when making a decision."<ref>Lannon and Bailey, "Circumcision Policy Statement," p. 691.</ref> In euphemism because the United Kingdom, where routine circumcision has now become far less prevalent than in operation actually cuts off or [[amputation| amputates]] the United States, a written consent of both parents is required, if a physician is to perform a non-therapeutic circumcision of a child.<ref>[http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/Re_J/2000.html Re J (child's religious upbringing and circumcision)[foreskin]], ''Family Court Reports'', vol. 1 (2000), pp. 307-314which in adults comprises about fifteen square inches of highly functional erogenous tissue.</ref>

In recent yearsCircumcision is most often performed in healthy males for [[Religion and Culture|religious or cultural]] reasons. The procedure may be performed on consenting adults, legal writers in several Englishbut it is most often performed on non-speaking countries have been questioning consenting minors, particularly newborn children, which is why the practice ritual is so controversial. Opponents of circumcision consider the circumcision of acceding non-consenting minors to parental wishesbe unethical and a [[human rights]] violation, unless there is concrete [[medical indication]].=== Consent by surrogates ===Medical ethics has long recognized limitations on the power of consent by surrogates.<ref>See{{REFjournal |last=Committee on Bioethics, e.g.American Academy of Pediatrics |etal=no |title= Informed consent, Somervilleparental permission, "Therapeutic and Nonassent in pediatric practice |trans-Therapeutic Medical Procedures"; Poulter, ''English Criminal Law''; Chessler, "Justifying the Unjustifiable"; Smith, "Male Circumcisiontitle= |language= |journal=Pediatrics |location= |date=1995 |volume=95 |issue=2 |article= |page= |pages=314-17 |url=https://www.cirp."org/library/ethics/AAP/ |archived= |quote= |pubmedID=7478854 |pubmedCID= |DOI= |accessdate=2023-05-21}}</ref> For example, critics have pointed out that, in the United States, more than 1.3% of male neonatal deaths are attributable to the complications of non-therapeutic circumcision surgery.<ref>{{REFjournal | last=BollingerCommittee on Bioethics | firstetal=Danno | coauthorstitle=Boy's Health AdvisoryInformed Consent in Decision-Making in Pediatric Practice | trans-title=Lost Boys: An Estimate of U.S. Circumcision-Related Infant Deaths |language= | journal=Thymos: Journal of Boyhood StudiesPediatrics |location= |date=2016-08 | volume=4138 | issue=12 |article= |page=e20161485 | pages=78-90 | url=httphttps://wwwwatermark.mensstudiessilverchair.com/content/b64n267w47m333x0/peds_20161485.pdf?ptoken=7ebbd6b446d940cbbd4274c095754b12πAQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAApwwggKYBgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggKJMIIChQIBADCCAn4GCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQM8zYHFd0Ylu9Annq_AgEQgIICT24ikc839aJMYOiypqC2G9f7_yKGAGkAekzzbCtck5TElALWVCGNoVSOaA6rDA_dOkQ_LyJnxYlZ88J9-uk15tvlIBbE82_aNyYfq5e9xmEfqD2vh374q3Naz57dxZaUbgxUkKX4PqsiLmYHLvVrr7bQK2MZuuUOKiQU8JZy7lLjkp-PjJO1U9cyIplTAgs_EdvgK8MWWoIsj-X-ZUDImAG63-rlj_qLsy5dYwytmxfCuVa47RdZseLSr2_bdDpwKAKGhq_Ly9rlHZeW_f7fYktVfF_sFTgcJziAlvEQmdyWIw0qf-hlO31Qb3sH6kDdcvHAbm7llY5xa34XLYIt8QR0YFIimgDGFliN4-ce2vjvvrwS85WeeNFhpn-Ywn4Qjpy06hPuLDL-MtI2Z3BZbBsKq4dp8qGu1q9GlXaKw193riTFG9G5bF5GCKmxmt0nCQTthrb_CcK2UhKjZwPekC9zkIUHPZ9BXJt0SM03F_g-GgqbE0hTYKMqNdJ3sHDQu2luFrJ9JEiMzxtP28gJoYh20d2APA0xrRbXBYsFdAlr50gb1BSAbNJhTyx-Kh3geoSHsAYMjPaG7cIbh0jd42pWCUx30vjlAGK8zXTuf7-31oi81CLbHTAJLuzK3NT4Whi17jVq1SbXsIXlWpKc_d-HujCvlb74rkZQ6RG9wkxW7gAKaDqtKv5zTOTMBD9vLVxgp8lDmVA8PFB59Bqd6w-fi86tW132oWQM-mTfwdIBXFbUFXkeTUC5RYyqJQIXAEwLJSRm1RX-LRbKRzgaRQ |archived=5 | quote= | pubmedID=27456510 | pubmedCID= | DOI=10.31491542/thypeds.0401.782016-1485 | dateformat=2010-04-26PDF | accessdate=2023-05-21}}</ref><ref>{{REFwebREFjournal |last=Committee on Bioethics ||etal=no |title=Informed Consent in Decision-Making in Pediatric Practice |trans-title= |language= |journal=Pediatrics |location= | quotedate=2016-08 |volume=138 |issue=2 |article= |page=e20161484 |pages= | url=httphttps://wwwwatermark.icgisilverchair.orgcom/2010/04/infantpeds_20161484.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAApwwggKYBgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggKJMIIChQIBADCCAn4GCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQMYv3coRY-UCYMgTaqAgEQgIICT4di03qn2Hbho3i8Li_78lod0lNMunch25nx1rKvaM_aeFerz5eN6_k8VVeNv-circumcisionDLocZp28whQr1x4WYDVwSs4uF73vZpYZYuDphYQkwxV1HHgMbZAbHBFuE8QyCHyDvSY-causesfhQcUl-100JrYxa3TbhYgd4bKiU9zfIyXUsCnItroCc9iNrMicPg0v_A0AJJlhxioOlAU-deathsim6OPI06OcCBj78yqkPO0J4nMTN1FLochsOyvZZdtFQQzLhrnM_Gey8K75lFYIBJHA7uzMmP2o5KZ-eachFTGUkEA_eSpEIpwv2WI4SbtrA8WYk3cQqXOmLIWjkSs9CTELD7CQP29xarr1ANrF_id4CiCX7zIomC2Ciz9lHBEgz8EH2i9Woke_YuZeLax52_6JpdhH1qdMQyF1bByjP8mU98V5_B4BPPiBpKt4pVA_UgtaABRHL8oPv6SwOUQZ2Bc-year0_E2tod0VIF1FJBwZRZJm2ZkJPgBSKUo8VBe5Pz_6Vpt2DqLzwqVUYscPsIJMvxl09mMtvJrsBa8yVoTRWj4Rd0OBTMV7zhZskDnYYyrAZ6sHMk0MzvbHilPNbNgU5o7mXmcbFGDgGgWbqrIdT6sVSSfPJm4TnR0HSWbc_EnHhhyye7tVlFGjAsR0R46_DSwEMz8M5DkSln8xfKtX_so9rjCvYeq45wqn09g8DqtV-inWHEA9PIrcw5kTcz5I0JkNuW4-usvKVU1Xz9XHiYi4Zqbq0vx9NWLdNSYHQSOGMZ1MCAxT152evQdipQB5wokR8Q4rICoJYII5bsmRMYd7JQ | titlearchived=Infant circumcision causes 100 deaths each year in US | lastquote=ICGI | firstpubmedID=27456514 | publisherpubmedCID= | Special:CreateMassMessageListDOI=International Coalition for Genital Integrity10.1542/peds.2016-1484 | dateformat=2010-04-26PDF | accessdate=2023-05-21

* [[CircumpendiumPain]]* [[Psychological issues of male circumcision]]* [[Rights situation on circumcision]]* [[Risks and complications]]* [[Sexual effects of circumcision]]* [[Sudden Infant Death Syndrome]] (SIDS)* [[Trauma]]{{LINKS}} * {{REFweb |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/anatomy/garcia/ |title=What exactly is circumcision and what is it not? |last=Garcia |first=Francisco |date=1995-12-11 |accessdate=2020-09-08}}* {{REFjournal |last=Fleiss |first=Paul |init=P |author-link=Paul M. Fleiss |title=The foreskin is necessary |journal=Mothering |date=1997-01 |volume= |issue= |pages=36-45 |url=http://www.noharmm.org/mothering.htm |accessdate=2020-06-29}}*{{REFweb |url=https://15square.org.uk/losses-from-circumcision/ |title=Losses from Circumcision |last=Ball |first=Peter |publisher=15 Square |date=2003-08-09 |accessdate=2023-02-23}}* {{REFweb |url=http://members.tranquility.net/~rwinkel/MGM/primer.html |title=Male Circumcision in the USA: A Human Rights Primer |last=Winkel |first=Rich |author-link=Rich Winkel |date=2005-05-12 |accessdate=2021-01-27}} * {{REFjournal |last=Testa |first=Patrick |init= |author-link= |last2=Block |first2=Walter E. |init2= |author2-link= |etal=no |title=Libertarianism and circumcision |trans-title= |language= |journal=Int J Health Poiicy Manag |location= |date=2014-05-26 |volume=3 |issue= |article= |page= |pages=33-40 |url=https://www.academia.edu/7587653/Libertarianism_and_Circumcision?email_work_card=view-paper |pubmedID=24987720 |pubmedCID=4075101 |DOI=10.15171/ijhpm.2014.51 |accessdate=}}