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'''{{FULLPAGENAME}}''', more formally known as the '''Republic of India''', is the world's most populous nation with an estimated population numbering 1 billion, 428 million inhabitants.
==Religious matters==
India has a long and rich religious history. Four major religions — Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism — originated in India. Others, including Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Islamism, have been imported.
Islamism has not co-existed well with the other religions because of its aggressive manner of pushing [[Islam]] on non-Muslims with the sword and by such tactics as forced circumcision. For example, more than 300 British soldiers were captured by Muslims in 1780 and forcibly [[circumcised]].<refname="fcirc">{{URLwikipedia|Forced_circumcision|Forced circumcision}}</ref>
The Dominion of India had long been governed by the British East India Company.<ref>{{URLwikipedia|East_India_Company|East India Company}}</ref> The British Raj assumed governance of India from the East India Company in 1858.<ref>{{URLwikipedia|British_Raj|British Raj}}</ref> The British Raj decided to partition India in 1947, essentially to reduce religious strife. Two regions in the north of India — East and West Pakistan — would be assigned to the new Dominion of Pakistan, which would be a home for Muslims. East Pakistan later became Bangladesh.<ref name="partition1947">{{URLwikipedia|Partition_of_India|Partition of India}}</ref>
The remainder of the Dominion of India would would be a home for non-Muslims.
Hindus, Sikhs, and adherents to other religions would be protected from most of the Muslims who were now in a separate nation. Pakistan now has 241.5 million Muslims and Bangladesh now has 169 million Muslims for a total of 410.5 million who have been removed from India and who cannot conveniently prey upon the non-Muslim citizens of India. The residual 14.2% Muslim population of India is now constitutes only about 172,000,000.<ref>{{URLwikipedia|Religion_in_India|Religion in India}}</ref>
The partition caused a mass migration with Muslims moving from India into Pakistan and non-Muslims moving from Pakistan into India. Muslims continued to conduct forced circumcisions at this time.<ref name="fcirc" />
==Medical science==
Medical science is highly advanced in India. Studies by Indian doctors have contributed to our understanding of the intact [[penis]].
* Satya Parkash (1972) discussed some of the functions of the [[foreskin]], some drawbacks to circumcision, and conditions for which [[circumcision]] should <i>not</i> be performed. Parkash described a new procedure for the plastic correction of [[phimosis]] which would save the foreskin.<ref name="parkash1972">{{REFjournal
|last=Parkash
|first=
|init=S
|author-link=
|etal=no
|title=Phimosis and its plastic correction
|trans-title=
|language=
|journal=J Indian Med Assoc
|location=
|date=1972-05-16
|volume=58
|issue=10
|pages=389-90
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/parkash3/
|archived=
|quote=The prepuce is not a useless structure. If proper personal hygiene is observed, the risk of malignancy is not high enough to justify its ritual excision. Besides the prepuce provides valuable spare skin for cover in various conditions. Conservation of the prepuce is fully justified even in cases with phimosis which does not resolve spontaneously or which is not giving rise to symptoms.
|pubmedID=4644911
|pubmedCID=
|accessdate=2024-07-05
}}</ref>
* Parkash et al (1973) studied the nature of the material which collects in the [[preputial sac]] of [[intact]] males. It was determined to be cast off "epithelial debris".<ref name="parkash1973">{{REFjournal
|last=Parkash
|first=
|init=S
|author-link=
|last2=Jeyakumar
|first2=
|init2=S
|author2-link=
|last3=Subramanyan
|first3=
|init3=K
|author3-link=
|last4=Chaudhuri
|first4=
|init4=S
|author4-link=
|etal=no
|title=Human subpreputial collection: its nature and formation
|trans-title=
|language=
|journal=J Urol
|location=
|date=1973-08
|volume=110
|issue=2
|pages=211-2
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/anatomy/parkash/
|archived=
|quote=A detailed study of the subpreputial collections and histological study of 128 specimens led us to conclude that there appears to be no evidence of any glandular tissue in the subpreputial region of the penis. Smegma is an epithelial debris collecting in this space.
|pubmedID=4722614
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=10.1016/s0022-5347(17)60164-2
|accessdate=2024-07-05
}}</ref>
* Lakshmanan & Parkash (1980) studied the nature and function of the layer of muscle fiber in the prepuce. The authors discovered the whorled pattern that produces a sphincter. They commented on the manner in which the [[foreskin]] is held close to the [[glans penis]]. They were the first to describe the [[gliding action]] of the foreskin that facilitates intercourse.<ref name="lakshmanan1980">{{REFjournal
|last= Lakshmanan
|init=S
|author-link=
|last2=Parkash
|init2=S
|author2-link=
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/anatomy/lakshmanan/
|title=Human prepuce: some aspects of structure and function
|journal=Indian J Surg
|date=1980
|volume=44
|issue=
|pages=134-7
|accessdate=2024-07-05
}}</ref>
* Parkash et al. (1982) studied the source of the wetness that is characteristic of the [[preputial sac]]. They determined that the wetness did not come from urine. They said:
<blockquote>
As such it appears safe to conclude that the space is kept moist and also clean in those with preputial stenosis, by the secretions of the prostate, supplemented by the seminal secretion of the mucin content of the secretion of the urethral glands.<ref name="parkash1982A">{{REFjournal
|last=Parkash
|first=
|init=S
|author-link=
|last2=Rao
|first2=
|init2=R
|author2-link=
|last3=Venkatesan
|first3=
|init3=K
|author3-link=
|last4=Ramakrishnan
|first4=
|init4=S
|author4-link=
|etal=no
|title=Sub-preputial wetness - Its nature.
|trans-title=
|language=
|journal=Ann Nat Med Sci (India
|location=
|date=1982
|volume=18
|issue=3
|pages=109-12
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/anatomy/prakash/
|archived=
|quote=As such it appears safe to conclude that the space is kept moist and also clean in those with preputial stenosis, by the secretions of the prostate, supplemented by the seminal secretion of the mucin content of the secretion of the urethral glands
|pubmedID=
|pubmedCID=
|accessdate=2024-07-05
}}</ref>
</blockquote>
* Parkash (1982) argued against non-therapeutic (routine) circumcision.<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Parkash
|first=
|init=S
|author-link=
|etal=no
|title=Is routine circumcision necessary?
|trans-title=
|language=
|journal=J Indian Med Assoc
|location=
|date=1982-05
|volume=78
|issue=(9-10)
|article=
|page=
|pages=150-1
|url=
|archived=
|quote=
|pubmedID=7130729
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=
|doi=
|accessdate=2024-07-09
}}</ref>
* Agarwal et al. (2005) studied preputial retraction in Indian boys.<ref name="agarwal2005">{{REFjournal
|last=Agarwal
|first=
|init=A
|author-link=
|last2=Mohta
|first2=
|init2=A
|author2-link=
|last3=Anand
|first3=
|init3=RK
|author3-link=
|etal=no
|title=Preputial retraction in children
|trans-title=
|language=
|journal=J Indian Assoc Pediatr Surg
|location=
|date=2005-04
|season=
|volume=10
|issue=2
|article=
|pages=89-91
|url=https://journals.lww.com/jiap/fulltext/2005/10020/preputial_retraction_in_children.5.aspx
|archived=
|quote=
|pubmedID=
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=10.4103/0971-9261.16468
|accessdate=2024-07-05
}}</ref>
* Shahid (2012) emphasized the necessity of properly diagnosing the type of phimosis when a boy with a non-retractable [[foreskin]] is presented. He also stated that [[circumcision]] is becoming outmoded as a treatment for phimosis.<ref name="shahid2012">{{REFjournal
|last=Shahid
|first=
|init=SK
|author-link=
|etal=no
|title=Phimosis in Children
|trans-title=
|language=
|journal=ISRN Urol
|location=
|date=2012-03-05
|volume=
|issue=
|article=707329
|page=
|pages=
|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3329654/
|archived=
|quote=When a child is brought with history of inability to retract the foreskin, it is important to confirm whether it is physiologic or pathologic. Management depends on age of child, type of nonretraction, severity of phimosis, cause, and associated morbid conditions.
|pubmedID=23002427
|pubmedCID=3329654
|DOI=10.5402/2012/707329
|doi=
|accessdate=2025-07-05
}}</ref>
* Manekar et al. (2022) surveyed paediatricans across India and found that most were so poorly trained that they could not distinguish between normal physiological phimosis and pathological phimosis in boys, which may result in large numbers of unnecessary circumcisions of boys.<ref name="manetar2022">{{REFjournal
|last=Manetar
|first=
|init=AA
|author-link=
|last2=Janjala
|first2=
|init2=M
|author2-link=
|last3=Sahoo
|first3=
|init3=SK
|author3-link=
|last4=Tripathy
|first4=
|init4=BB
|author4-link=
|last5=Mohanty
|first5=
|init5=MJ
|author5-link=
|etal=no
|title=Phimosis - Are we on right track?
|trans-title=
|language=
|journal=Afr J Paediatr Surg
|location=
|date=2022
|season=
|volume=19
|issue=4
|article=
|page=
|pages=199-202
|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9615947/
|archived=
|quote=
|pubmedID=36018197
|pubmedCID=9615947
|DOI=10.4103/ajps.ajps_143_21
|accessdate=2024-07-05
}}</ref>
==A new surgical technique from India==
Gupta, Mehta, & Gupta (2021), working in India, have described a new surgical technique to provide coverage of the [[glans penis]] at all times, including tumescent, for men who were involuntarily [[circumcised]] in childhood or who had a congenitally short prepuce ([[foreskin]]). The procedure has been performed on 46 patients with apparent complete success, although penetrating sexual performance has not been evaluated.<ref name="gupta2021">{{REFjournal
|last=Gupta
|first=Ritchie
|init=
|author-link=
|last2=Mehta
|first2=Sandeep
|init2=
|author2-link=
|last3=Gupta
|first3=Rajat
|init3=
|author3-link=
|etal=no
|title=A Novel Procedure of Prepuce Reconstruction Customized to the Religious Needs of Some Individuals
|trans-title=
|language=
|journal=Int J Plast Surg
|location=
|date=2021-04
|volume=54
|issue=2
|pages=114-7
|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8297551/
|archived=
|quote=
|pubmedID=34305339
|pubmedCID=8297551
|DOI=10.1055/s-0041-1731621
|accessdate=2024-07-05
}}</ref>
This procedure supplies a special need of religious officials of the Jain religion. It is not generally suitable for others.
== Circumcision in India ==
Non-therapeutic infant [[circumcision]] is not normally done in India.
Although male circumcision is not unlawful, it is not part of the culture or religion of most Indians. In fact, it is viewed with distaste or even horror by most Indians, especially since it is associated with Islamic practice. Sikhism prohibits cutting of the body and Jainism favors non-violence. Hindus, Sikhs, and others have no desire to appear to be Muslim. The vast majority (86.5%) of males are [[foreskinned]].
Boys born into the 14.2% Muslim minority of families are usually [[circumcised]] prior to puberty.
Circumcision for medical indications is also practiced. There are urologists who advertise and promote their services. It is not clear that Indian urologists offer conservative prepuce-preserving treatment of foreskin conditions to Indian men. The Urological Society of India does not offer guidelines on the conservative treatment of [[phimosis]].<ref name="usi2024">{{REFweb
|url=https://usi.org.in/index.php
|title=Urological Society of India
|last=
|first=
|init=
|author-link=
|publisher=
|date=
|accessdate=2024-07-06
}}</ref>
== The prevalence of circumcision ==
The World Population Review and [[Brian J. Morris]] both estimate that 13.5 percent of Indian males are [[circumcised]],<ref>{{REFweb
|url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/circumcision-by-country
|title=Circumcision by Country 2024
|last=Anonymous
|first=
|init=
|author-link=
|publisher=World Population Review
|date=2024
|accessdate=2024-07-06
}}</ref> <ref>{{REFweb
|url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Percentage-of-circumcised-males-in-each-of-the-237-countries-and-territories-in-the-world_tbl1_296472682
|title=Table one
|last=Morris
|first=
|init=BJ
|author-link=Brian J. Morris
|publisher=Research Gate
|date=2016-03
|accessdate=2024-07-06
}}</ref> leaving 86.5% [[intact]].
{{LINKS}}
{{URLwikipedia|India|India|2019-09-15}}
{{REF}}
[[Category:Asia]]
[[Category:Circumcision]]
[[Category:Education]]
[[Category:India]]
[[Category:Male circumcision]]