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}}</ref> [...] The procedure is most often an elective non-therapeutic surgery performed on neonates and children for religious and cultural reasons, but in other cases may be indicated for both therapeutic and prophylactic reasons. It is a radical treatment option for pathological [[phimosis]], refractory [[Balanitis| balanoposthitis]] and chronic [[urinary tract infection]]s (UTIs); it is contraindicated in cases of certain genital structure abnormalities or poor general health." (Source: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision Wikipedia]) '''Posthectomy''' is a more accurate medical term that more accurately reflects the injury and loss of functional body tissue, but the Biblical euphemism, ''circumcision'', is more commonly used.  With reference to involuntary, non-therapeutic circumcision of children, [[Child Genital Cutting (CGC)]] is a new term that has been introduced to avoid issues associated with more traditional terms.

In the Jewish religion, the tradition of circumcision goes back to a passage in the Book of Genesis (17, 10-14). It is seen as a [[Abrahamic covenant| covenant between God and man]], dating back to the patriarch Abraham.

According to the anthropologist and sociologist Nissan Rubin, the Jewish form of circumcision, called ''[[Brit Milah| brit mila]]'', during the first two millennia did not include the later customary ''periah'', namely the complete scraping of the inner [[foreskin]] from the [[Glans penis|glans]]. This was only added around 135 AD, to make it impossible to restore the [[foreskin]] by stretching, which became popular in the wake of Hellenic influence. While originally only the tip of the [[foreskin]] was cut off, periah removes the entire [[foreskin]]. In the Greek society of the day, a denuded [[Glans penis|glans]] was considered obscene and risible. In ultra-orthodox communities, circumcision is followed by the ''[[mohel]]'', the ritual circumciser, sucking blood from the wound with his mouth. This practice is highly controversial, as it can result in an infection with [[herpes ]] simplex type 1. In New York City, between 2000 and 2011 eleven children were infected with [[herpes]], 10 of whom had to be treated in hospital. Two of them suffered permanent brain damage, two others died. In the 12th century, the Jewish philosopher and doctor [[Moses Maimonides | Maimonides]] pointed out that circumcision was necessary, as it diminished sexual desires and reduced the pleasure to a degree just sufficient for mere reproduction.

The first Christians had been born Jewish, so a question arose whether one must be circumcised to be a Christian. When Christian leaders met at the [[Council at Jerusalem ]] in the First Century to decide what was required to be a Christian, a letter was written to explain the requirements, but circumcision was omitted from the requirements.<ref>{{REFweb

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}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal

|accessdate=2019-1112-02615

* Meatal stenosis, a pathological narrowing * Knot formation of the opening of veins. If the urethradorsal vein, which mostly occurs originates in infancy the tip of the [[foreskin]], is cut during circumcision without being clamped and early childhoodsutured at its origin separately, it starts to develop new branches over time, which can lead to the development of knots. It is one * Possible deformities due to circumcision include hypoplasia of the most common complications of infant circumcision[[penis]] (micro-penis) and induratio [[penis]] plastica (skewed penis).* Medical malpractice can also not be ruled out. Injuries, partly or entirely severing the [[Glans penis|glans]] or the [[penis]] can occur. A study from 2006 found meatal stenosis exclusively in previously circumcised boys* In rare cases, necrosis, gangrene, ischaemia, keloid formation and circulatory problems may also occur. The incidence rate after a * When the circumcision is at approximately 10%followed by the ultra-orthodox Jewish ritual of Metzitzah B'Peh (which consists of sucking blood from the wound with the mouth), there is a risk of infection with [[herpes]] simplex type 1, which can lead to brain damage or death.<ref>{{REFjournalREFweb |lasturl=Van Howe |first=Rhttp://www.Snytimes.com/2012/03/08/nyregion/infants-death-renews-debate-over-a-circumcision-ritual.html?_r=0 |title=Incidence of meatal stenosis following neonatal circumcision in Baby’s Death Renews Debate Over a primary care settingCircumcision Ritual |journallast=Clin Pediatr (Phila)Robbins |notefirst=Jan-Feb 2006Liz |date=20062012-01 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=4903-54 |url=07 |accessdate=2019-10-11}}</ref> === Physical late effects === * An unavoidable late effect of any circumcision is the permanent loss of sexual sensitivity. This is partly due to the removal of sensory tissue. The [[foreskin]] contains very many nerve endings and touch receptors, which account for the major part of male sexual sensation. If the [[foreskin]] is removed, they can no longer provide sexual stimulation. It is also partly due to the fact that the surface of the [[Glans penis|glans]] reacts to the missing protection from friction and drying out by developing a callus layer. This reduces the sensitivity of the remaining nerves in the [[Glans penis|glans]] gradually over the years. The study conducted by Sorrells ''et al.''<ref>{{REFjournal |last=StenramSorrells |first=AM.L. |last2=MalmforsSnyder |first2=GJ..L. |last3=OkmianReiss |first3=LM.D. |etal=yes |title=Circumcision for Fine-touch pressure thresholds in the adult [[phimosispenis]]: a follow-up study |journal=Scandinavian journal of urology and nephrologyBJU Int |date=19862007 |volume=2099 |issue=2 |pages=89864-869 |url= |pubmedID=3749823

}} </ref><ref>{{REFweb |url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1016016-overview |title=Meatal Stenosis |publisher=Medscape |accessdate=2019-10-11}}</ref>* Knot formation of the veins. If the dorsal vein, which originates in the tip found a significant reduction of the [[foreskin]], is cut during circumcision without being clamped and sutured at its origin separately, it starts to develop new branches over time, which can lead sensitivity to the development of knots.* Possible deformities due touch for circumcised compared to circumcision include hypoplasia of the intact [[penis]] (micro-penis) and induratio [[penis]] plastica (skewed penis)es in adult males.* Medical malpractice can also not be ruled out. InjuriesOther studies revealed that circumcised men use condoms significantly less often than intact men, partly or entirely severing since they further limit the [[Glans penis|glans]] or the [[penis]] can occur.* In rare cases, necrosis, gangrene, ischaemia, keloid formation and circulatory problems may also occur.* When the circumcision is followed by the ultra-orthodox Jewish ritual of Metzitzah B'Peh sexual sensitivity (which consists of sucking blood from the wound with the mouthsee above), there is a risk of infection with herpes simplex type 1, which can lead to brain damage or death.<ref>{{REFweb |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/08/nyregion/infants-death-renews-debate-over-a-circumcision-ritual.html?_r=0 |title=Baby’s Death Renews Debate Over a Circumcision Ritual |last=Robbins |first=Liz |date=2012-03-07 |accessdate=2019-10-11}}</ref>

=== Physical late effects === * An unavoidable late effect of any circumcision is the permanent loss of sexual sensitivity. This is partly due to the removal of sensory tissue. The [[foreskin]] contains very many nerve endings and touch receptors, which account for the major part of male sexual sensation. If the [[foreskin]] is removed, they can no longer provide sexual stimulation. It is also partly due to the fact that the surface of the [[Glans penis|glans]] reacts to the missing protection from friction and drying out by developing a callus layer. This reduces the sensitivity of the remaining nerves in the [[Glans penis|glans]] gradually over the years. The study conducted by Sorrells ''et al.''<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Sorrells |first=M.L. |last2=Snyder |first2=J..L. |last3=Reiss |first3=M.D. |etal=yes |title=Fine-touch pressure thresholds in the adult [[penis]] |journal=BJU Int |date=2007 |volume=99 |issue= |pages=864-869 |url= |accessdate=}}</ref> found a significant reduction of sensitivity to touch for circumcised compared to intact [[penis]]es in adult males. Other studies revealed that circumcised men use condoms significantly less often than intact men, since they further limit the sexual sensitivity (see above). * Painful tension can occur when there is too little reserve skin left to support a full erection<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Taylor |first=J.R.

|pages=2113-2116 |url= |accessdate=}}</ref> * [[Lymphoedema]] of the penis is a normal and expected complication of male circumcision. * [[Meatal stenosis]], a pathological narrowing of the opening of the urethra, which mostly occurs in infancy and early childhood. It is one of the most common complications of infant circumcision. A study from 2006 found meatal stenosis exclusively in previously circumcised boys. The incidence rate after a circumcision is approximately 10 to 20 percent.<ref name="vanhowe2006">{{REFjournal |last=Van Howe |first=R.S. |title=Incidence of meatal stenosis following neonatal circumcision in a primary care setting |journal=Clin Pediatr (Phila) |note=Jan-Feb 2006 |date=2006-01 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=49-54 |url=https://www.academia.edu/6992015/Incidence_of_Meatal_Stenosis_following_Neonatal_Circumcision_in_a_Primary_Care_Setting |accessdate=2019-12-15}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Stenram |first=A. |last2=Malmfors |first2=G. |last3=Okmian |first3=L. |title=Circumcision for [[phimosis]]: a follow-up study |journal=Scandinavian journal of urology and nephrology |date=1986 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=89 |url= |pubmedID=3749823 |accessdate=}} </ref><ref>{{REFweb |url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1016016-overview |title=Meatal Stenosis |publisher=Medscape |accessdate=2019-10-11}}</ref> === Psychological late effects === [[Psychological_issues_of_male_circumcision#Circumcision_trauma_in_adults| Psychological late effects ]] are also possible after a circumcision, especially if the operation was carried out in childhood. On this occasion a variety of trauma may occur, which depend, among others, on age and circumstances of the circumcision. For example, whether the circumcision took place with or without sufficient anaesthesia, if the individual has been informed about the operation beforehand, if he was circumcised against his will or without his consent, and also, in the case of infant circumcision, if he was told about it during childhood or had to find it out coincidentally on his own. The psychological late effects of circumcision are not yet fully researched, and many studies took place on rather a small scale. This situation needs to be rectified, because the available studies, as well as the histories of negatively affected men, suggest that these late effects may have more impact than previously assumed. * It was observed that infants, following circumcision without pain control, had a disturbed bond with their mother<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Marshall |first=R.E. |last2=Porter |first2=F.L. |last3=Rogers |first3=A.G. |etal=yes |title=Circumcision: II effects upon mother-infant interaction |journal=Early Hum Dev |date=1982 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=367-374 |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/birth/marshall2/ |accessdate=2020-02-01}}</ref>, as well as problems with nurturing, up to the point of refusal to be fed. The sleeping habits of these babies were also disturbed, with prolonged non-REM sleep and increased waking.

The [[AAFP ]] states quite simply in their [[Position Statements on Infant Circumcision|position paper]], ''"Newborns experience pain during circumcision".''<ref>{{REFweb

|title=Pain During Mogen or PlastiBell Plastibell Circumcision