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}}</ref> They are made to enable a physician to perform circumcision and collect a fee.

===Search for prophylactic reasons===

''The following text is taken from the [[Circumpendium]].''

=== Prophylactic reasons ===

* [[Phimosis]]: as mentioned earlier, true [[phimosis]] is rare and can be treated effectively without surgery. According to a study by Blalock et al. (2003)<ref name="blalock2003">{{REFjournal

* Two studies that have been published in early 2007<ref>{{RCT Gray et al 2007}}</ref><ref>{{RCT Bailey et al 2007}}</ref>, which investigated the effectiveness of circumcision as a means of reducing the spread of [[HIV]] from infected women to heterosexual men in African high risk areas, have been repeatedly subjected to strong criticism. Both studies were ended prematurely, which distorted the results. The men who had been [[circumcised]] for the study had to stay sexually inactive during the wound healing, which gave the intact control group more relative opportunity to become infected. These African randomized clinical trials have been demonstrated to have very serious methodological and statistical errors that distort the results in favor of circumcision.<ref name="boyle-hill2011">{{BoyleGJ HillG 2011}}</ref>

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* Penile and cervical cancer / HPV: first studies on those diseases and their assumed prevention by circumcision date back to 1932, a time when the cause for those illnesses was not yet fully understood.<ref>{{Wolbarst1932}}</ref> Today, it is known that sexually transmitted human papillomavirus (HPV) is a major risk factor<ref>{{REFjournal

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The [[Circumcision methods]] are discussed in a separate article.

== Pain ==

In the past, advocates of circumcision claimed that a newborn child's nerve system was not yet fully developed, and that as a result, the child felt no [[pain]] during the circumcision procedure. Anand & Hickey (1987) have shown that newborn children do in fact feel [[pain]], and more acutely than adults.<ref name="anand-hickey1987">{{REFjournal

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{{Box|Boxtext=<big><b>However, none of the above three procedures totally eliminate pain. A baby boy will still experience some pain despite any of those analgesic procedures. Prevention of [[pain]] requires protecting a boy from elective neonatal non-therapeutic circumcision. Only boys who are protected from the medically unnecessary circumcision surgery experience no [[pain]] or [[trauma]].</b></big>}}

== Risks and effects ==

Just like tonsil or appendix surgery, circumcision is a surgical intervention and brings the usual risks related to surgical operations, alongside several specific risks of complications and late effects. Uberoi et al. (2022) report "some men are experiencing a complex negative constellation of psychological, physical, and sexual associations that lead to significant emotional distress directed both internally and externally. The posts also reveal a discovery phenomenon wherein men discover the physical and psychological manifestations of the decisions made by others to modify their genitals."<ref name ="uberoi2022">{{REFjournal

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=== Death ===

A study in 2010 estimated approximately 117 neonatal circumcision-related deaths occur annually in the United States, about one out of every 77 male neonatal deaths, more than suffocation, auto accidents, or even [[SIDS]].<ref name="Bollinger 2010">{{REFjournal

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}}</ref> See also the list of [[fatalities]].

== Forced circumcision ==

<!--=== United States military ===

American soldiers serving in World War II were subjected to regular inspections of their genitals. If intact, the soldiers risked being ordered to undergo immediate circumcision.<ref>{{REFbook

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}}</ref> This practice was discontinued at least six decades ago.-->

=== Non-therapeutic circumcision of male children ===

In recent years, legal writers in several English-speaking countries have been questioning the practice of acceding to parental wishes.<ref>See, e.g., [[Margaret A. Somerville|Somerville]], "Therapeutic and Non-Therapeutic Medical Procedures"; Poulter, ''English Criminal Law''; [[Abbie Chessler|Chessler]], "Justifying the Unjustifiable"; Smith, "Male Circumcision."</ref> For example, critics have pointed out that, in the [[United States]], more than 1.3% of male neonatal deaths are attributable to the complications of non-therapeutic circumcision surgery.<ref name="Bollinger 2010"/>

==Video==

===Is circumcision healthy?===

</blockquote>

* Andrew E. MacNeiiy, Head, Division of Pediatric Urology, Department of Urological Sciences, {{UNI|University of British Columbia|UBC}}, Vancouver, BC, (2008) said:

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Newborn circumcision remains an area of controversy. Social, cultural, aesthetic and religious pressures form the most common reasons for non-therapeutic circumcision. Although penile cancer and UTIs are reduced compared with uncircumcised males, the incidence of such illness is so low that circumcision cannot be justified as prophylaxis. The role of the foreskin in [[HIV]] transmission in developed countries is unclear, and safe sexual practice remains the cornerstone of prevention. There remains a lack of knowledge regarding what constitutes the normal foreskin both among parents and among primary care providers. This lack of knowledge results in a burden of costs to our health care system in the form of unnecessary urological referrals, expansion of wait times and circumcisions. Routine circumcision of all infants is not justified from a health or cost-benefit perspective.<ref>{{REFjournal