Difference between revisions of "Balanitis xerotica obliterans"

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[[Image:Bxo.gif|right|thumb|Balanitis xerotica obliterans]]
 
[[Image:Bxo.gif|right|thumb|Balanitis xerotica obliterans]]
  
−
'''Balanitis Xerotica Obliterans''' (BXO) is also known as '''Lichen Sclerosus et Atrophicus''' (LSA).<ref name="freeman">{{REFjournal
+
'''Balanitis Xerotica Obliterans''' (BXO) is also known as '''Lichen Sclerosis et Atrophicus''' (LSA).<ref name="freeman">{{REFjournal
 
  |last=Freeman
 
  |last=Freeman
 
  |init=C
 
  |init=C
 
  |last2=Laymon
 
  |last2=Laymon
 
  |init2=CW
 
  |init2=CW
−
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/freeman1/
+
  |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/freeman1/
 
  |title=Balanitis xerotica obliterans
 
  |title=Balanitis xerotica obliterans
 
  |journal=Arch Dermat Syph
 
  |journal=Arch Dermat Syph
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  |last2=Freeman
 
  |last2=Freeman
 
  |init2=C
 
  |init2=C
−
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/laymon1/
+
  |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/laymon1/
−
  |title=Relationship of Balanitis xerotica obliterans to lichen sclerosus et atrophicus
+
  |title=Relationship of Balanitis xerotica obliterans to lichen sclerosis et atrophicus
 
  |journal=Arch Derm Syph
 
  |journal=Arch Derm Syph
 
  |location=Chicago
 
  |location=Chicago
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  |last2=Saini
 
  |last2=Saini
 
  |init2=R
 
  |init2=R
−
  |url=http://web.archive.org/web/20050407182428/http://www.vulvarpain.icomm.ca/parsad.html
+
  |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050407182428/http://www.vulvarpain.icomm.ca/parsad.html
 
  |archived=yes
 
  |archived=yes
 
  |title=Oral Stanozolol in Lichen Sclerosus et Atrophicus
 
  |title=Oral Stanozolol in Lichen Sclerosus et Atrophicus
Line 44: Line 44:
 
  |last=Finkbeiner
 
  |last=Finkbeiner
 
  |init=AE
 
  |init=AE
−
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/finkbeiner2003/
+
  |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/finkbeiner2003/
 
  |title=Balanitis xerotica obliterans: a form of lichen sclerosus
 
  |title=Balanitis xerotica obliterans: a form of lichen sclerosus
 
  |journal=South Med J
 
  |journal=South Med J
Line 51: Line 51:
 
  |issue=1
 
  |issue=1
 
  |pages=7-8
 
  |pages=7-8
−
}}</ref> First described in Germany by Stühmer in 1928,<ref name="stühmer">Stühmer A. Balanitis xerotica obiterans und ihre Beziehungen zur 'Kraurosis glandi et praeputii penis'. ''Arch Dermatol Syph'' (Berlin) 1928;156:613. DOI: 10.1007/BF01828558 ([http://www.springerlink.com/content/k2895227m2410756/ Abstract])</ref> it is a [[skin]] disease of unknown etiology<ref name="freeman" /> and occurs in both males and females. BXO is the name traditionally used when the disease afflicts the male sexual organs, while LSA is the name applied when the disease appears in a female or a male in other than the genital organs. An older name for BXO is ''kraurosis glandii et praeputii penis''.<ref name="freeman" /><ref name="McKay">McKay DL Jr, Fuqua F, Weinberg AG. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/mckay1/ Balanitis xerotica obliterans in children]. ''J Urol'' 1975;114(5):773-5.</ref>
+
}}</ref> First described in Germany by Stühmer in 1928,<ref name="stühmer">{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Stühmer
 +
|init=A
 +
|title=Balanitis xerotica obiterans und ihre Beziehungen zur 'Kraurosis glandi et praeputii penis'
 +
|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01828558
 +
|journal=Arch Dermatol Syph
 +
|location=Berlin
 +
|date=1928
 +
|volume=156
 +
|page=613
 +
|DOI=10.1007/BF01828558
 +
}}</ref> it is a [[skin]] disease of unknown etiology<ref name="freeman"/> and occurs in both males and females. BXO is the name traditionally used when the disease afflicts the male sexual organs, while LSA is the name applied when the disease appears in a female or a male in other than the genital organs. An older name for BXO is ''kraurosis glandii et praeputii penis''.<ref name="freeman"/><ref name="McKay">{{REFjournal
 +
|last=McKay
 +
|init=DL Jr
 +
|last2=Fuqua
 +
|init2=F
 +
|last3=Weinberg
 +
|init3=AG
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/mckay1/
 +
|title=Balanitis xerotica obliterans in children
 +
|journal=J Urol
 +
|date=1975
 +
|volume=114
 +
|issue=5
 +
|pages=773-5
 +
}}</ref>
  
 
<small>This page is limited to information about the disease in males when it affects the genital organs. For information on the disease in females see [[Lichen sclerosus|Lichen Sclerosus]].</small>
 
<small>This page is limited to information about the disease in males when it affects the genital organs. For information on the disease in females see [[Lichen sclerosus|Lichen Sclerosus]].</small>
  
−
Affecting only 6 in 1000 males (0.6%), BXO is a rare disease which can affect males at any age.<ref name="parsad" /> As rare as it may be, BXO is a relatively serious disease. It can cause urethral stricture and retention of [[urine]].<ref name="freeman" /> Malignant tumors have been reported to develop from BXO, albeit very rarely.<ref name="freeman" /><ref name="shankar">Shankar KR, Rickwood AM. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/shankar1/ The incidence of phimosis in boys]. ''BJU Int'' 1999;84(1):101-2.</ref> Meffert ''et al''. (1995) provide a recent review of the literature.<ref>Meffert JJ, Davis BM, Grimwood RE. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/meffert1/ Lichen Sclerosus]. ''J Am Acad Dermatol'' 1995;32(3):393-416.</ref> A person with BXO or suspected BXO should be under the care of a medical doctor.
+
Affecting only 6 in 1000 males (0.6%), BXO is a rare disease which can affect males at any age.<ref name="parsad"/> As rare as it may be, BXO is a relatively serious disease. It can cause urethral stricture and retention of [[urine]].<ref name="freeman"/> Malignant tumors have been reported to develop from BXO, albeit very rarely.<ref name="freeman"/><ref name="shankar">{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Shankar
 +
|init=KR
 +
|last2=Rickwood
 +
|init2=AM
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/shankar1/
 +
|title=The incidence of phimosis in boys
 +
|journal=BJU Int
 +
|date=1999
 +
|volume=84
 +
|issue=1
 +
|pages=101-2
 +
}}</ref> Meffert et al. (1995) provide a recent review of the literature.<ref>{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Meffert
 +
|init=JJ
 +
|last2=Davis
 +
|init2=BM
 +
|last3=Grimwood
 +
|init3=RE
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/meffert1/
 +
|title=Lichen Sclerosus
 +
|journal=J Am Acad Dermatol
 +
|date=1995
 +
|volume=32
 +
|issue=3
 +
|pages=393-416
 +
}}</ref> A person with BXO or suspected BXO should be under the care of a medical doctor.
  
 
== Diagnosis ==
 
== Diagnosis ==
  
−
Freeman & Laymon (1941) provide a detailed classic description of the disease:<ref name="freeman" /> BXO is usually distinguished by a ring of hardened tissue with a whitish color at the tip of the [[foreskin]]. The hardening of the tissue prevents [[retraction of the foreskin]].<ref name="shankar" /> Immunophenotyping may be useful in differential diagnosis.<ref>Hinchliffe SA, Ciftci AO, Khine MM, ''et al.'' [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/hinchliffe1/ Composition of the inflammatory infiltrate in pediatric penile lichen sclerosus et atrophicus (balanitis xerotica obliterans): a prospective, comparative immunophenotyping study]. ''Pediatr Pathol'' 1994;14(2):223-33.</ref> Histologic examination of cutaneous biopsy gives a definite diagnosis.<ref name="pasieczny">Pasieczny TAH. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/pasieczny1/ The treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans with testosterone propionate ointment]. ''Acta Derm Venerol'' (Stockholm) 1977;57:275-7.</ref><ref name="rickwood-boys">Rickwood AMK, Hemalatha V, Batcup G, Spitz L. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/rickwood/ Phimosis in Boys]. ''Brit J Urol'' 1980; 52:147-150.</ref><ref name="shankar" /><ref name="depasquale">Depasquale I, Park AJ, Bracka A. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/depasquale1/ The treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans]. ''BJU Int'' 2000;86(4):459-65.</ref> The presence of BXO must be confirmed in order to consider the choice of treatment modality. If the biopsy rules out BXO as a cause of non-retractile foreskin, then conservative treatment is most likely possible. If, on the other hand, a biopsy confirms the presence of BXO, the choice of treatment modality is more difficult.
+
Freeman & Laymon (1941) provide a detailed classic description of the disease:<ref name="freeman"/> BXO is usually distinguished by a ring of hardened tissue with a whitish color at the tip of the [[foreskin]]. The hardening of the tissue prevents [[retraction of the foreskin]].<ref name="shankar"/> Immunophenotyping may be useful in differential diagnosis.<ref>{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Hinchliffe
 +
|init=SA
 +
|last2=Ciftci
 +
|init2=AO
 +
|last3=Khine
 +
|init3=MM
 +
|etal=yes
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/hinchliffe1/
 +
|title=Composition of the inflammatory infiltrate in pediatric penile lichen sclerosus et atrophicus (balanitis xerotica obliterans): a prospective, comparative immunophenotyping study
 +
|journal=Pediatr Pathol
 +
|date=1994
 +
|volume=14
 +
|issue=2
 +
|pages=223-33
 +
}}</ref> Histologic examination of cutaneous biopsy gives a definite diagnosis.<ref name="pasieczny">{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Pasieczny
 +
|init=TAH
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/pasieczny1/
 +
|title=The treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans with testosterone propionate ointment
 +
|journal=Acta Derm Venerol
 +
|location=Stockholm
 +
|date=1977
 +
|volume=57
 +
|pages=275-7
 +
}}</ref><ref name="rickwood-boys">{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Rickwood
 +
|init=AMK
 +
|last2=Hemalatha
 +
|init2=V
 +
|last3=Batcup
 +
|init3=G
 +
|last4=Spitz
 +
|init4=L
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/rickwood/
 +
|title=Phimosis in Boys
 +
|journal=Brit J Urol
 +
|date=1980
 +
|volume=52
 +
|pages=147-50
 +
}}</ref><ref name="shankar"/><ref name="depasquale">{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Depasquale
 +
|init=I
 +
|last2=Park
 +
|init2=AJ
 +
|last3=Bracka
 +
|init3=A
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/depasquale1/
 +
|title=The treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans
 +
|journal=BJU Int
 +
|date=2000
 +
|volume=86
 +
|issue=4
 +
|pages=459-65
 +
}}</ref> The presence of BXO must be confirmed in order to consider the choice of treatment modality. If the biopsy rules out BXO as a cause of non-retractile foreskin, then conservative treatment is most likely possible. If, on the other hand, a biopsy confirms the presence of BXO, the choice of treatment modality is more difficult.
  
 
== Treatment ==
 
== Treatment ==
−
In the past, the traditional treatment of BXO has been radical [[circumcision]].<ref name="meuli">Meuli M, Briner J, Hanimann B, Sacher P. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/meuli/ Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus causing phimosis in boys: a prospective study with 5-year followup after complete circumcision]. ''J Urol'' 1994:152(3):987-9.</ref> However, many conservative treatment options are now available.
+
In the past, the traditional treatment of BXO has been radical [[circumcision]].<ref name="meuli">{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Meuli
 +
|init=M
 +
|last2=Briner
 +
|init2=J
 +
|last3=Hanimann
 +
|init3=B
 +
|last4=Sacher
 +
|init4=P
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/meuli/
 +
|title=Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus causing phimosis in boys: a prospective study with 5-year followup after complete circumcision
 +
|journal=J Urol
 +
|date=1994
 +
|volume=152
 +
|issue=3
 +
|pages=987-9
 +
}}</ref> However, many conservative treatment options are now available.
  
 
=== Conventional vs. conservative treatment ===
 
=== Conventional vs. conservative treatment ===
  
−
Conventional medical wisdom has stated that BXO is an absolute indication for circumcision,<ref name="meuli" /> however, this treatment modality dates from a time when the prepuce was considered to have no value for the individual. In more recent times, this is no longer the case, as the function and value of the prepuce are now being recognized, and males may wish for treatment that preserves the integrity of their organs; protection of the individual from unnecessarily radical surgery is always a doctor's prerogative. Fortunately, thanks to advances in modern medicine, researchers have reported some success with conservative therapies for BXO that spare the patient from surgery and preserve the prepuce.
+
Conventional medical wisdom has stated that BXO is an absolute indication for circumcision,<ref name="meuli"/> however, this treatment modality dates from a time when the prepuce was considered to have no value for the individual. In more recent times, this is no longer the case, as the function and value of the prepuce are now being recognized, and males may wish for treatment that preserves the integrity of their organs; protection of the individual from unnecessarily radical surgery is always a doctor's prerogative. Fortunately, thanks to advances in modern medicine, researchers have reported some success with conservative therapies for BXO that spare the patient from surgery and preserve the prepuce.
  
 
==== Non-surgical treatment ====
 
==== Non-surgical treatment ====
  
−
Corticosteroids have been used with varying degrees of success.<ref>Catterall RD, Oakes JK. Treatment of balanitis xerotica obiterans with hydrocortisone injections. ''Br J Ven Dis'' 1962;38:75.</ref><ref>Poynter JH. Levy J. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1464-410X.2000.00772.x Balanitis xerotica obliterans: effective treatment with topical and sublesional corticosteroids]. ''Br J Urol'' 1967;39(4):420-5.</ref> Pasieczny (1977) reports successful treatment with topical testosterone propionate ointment.<ref name="pasieczny" /><ref name="rickwood-medical">Rickwood AMK. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1045.x Medical indications for circumcision]. ''BJU Int'' 1999: 83 Suppl 1, 45-51.</ref> Several authorities report success with clobetasol propionate.<ref>Jørgensen ET, Svensson Å. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/jorgensen/ The treatment of phimosis in boys, with a potent topical steroid (clobetasol propionate 0,05%) cream]. ''Acta Dermato-Venereologica'' (Stockholm) 1993;73(1):55-56.</ref><ref>Jorgensen ET, Svensson A. [http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/313/7058/692 Problems with the penis and prepuce in children: Lichen sclerosus should be treated with corticosteroids to reduce need for surgery]. ''BMJ'' 1996;313:692. (link to www.bmj.com)</ref><ref>Dahlman-Ghozlan K, Hedblad MA, von Krogh G. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/dahlman-ghozlan1/ Penile lichen sclerosus et atrophicus treated with clobetasol dipropionate 0.05% cream: a retrospective clinical and histopathological study]. ''J Am Acad Dermatol'' 1999;40(3):451-7.</ref><ref name="neuhaus">Neuhaus IM, Skidmore RA. [http://www.familypractice.com/references/referencesframe.htm?main=/journal/1999/v12.n06/1206.06/art-1206.06.htm Balanitis xerotica obliterans and its differential diagnosis]. ''J Am Board Fam Pract'' 1999; 12(6):473-476.</ref> Shelley and colleagues (1999) report successful treatment with antibiotics.<ref>Shelley, WB, Shelley ED, Gruenwald MA, ''et al.'' [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/shelley1/ Long-term antibiotic therapy for balanitis xerotica obliterans]. ''J Am Acad Dermatol'' 1999;40:69-72.</ref> While Depasquale and colleagues (2000) recommend radical circumcision, they also suggest mometasone or clobetasol cream as a non-surgical alternative.<ref name="depasquale" /> Dewan (2001) reports that BXO is successfully treated with topical steroid ointment during the early stages.<ref>Kiss A, Csontai A, Pirot L, ''et al.'' [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/kiss1/ The response of balanitis xerotica obliterans to local steroid application compared with placebo in children]. ''J Urol'' 2001;165(1):219-20.</ref><ref>Neill SM, Tatnall FM, Cox NH. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/neill2002/ Guidelines for the management of lichen sclerosus]. ''Br J Dermatol'' 2002;147:640-9.</ref> Finkbeiner (2003) reports that tacrolimus ointment is effective for treatment of LSA in women.<ref>Finkbeiner AE. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/finkbeiner2003/ Balanitis xerotica obliterans: a form of lichen sclerosus]. ''South Med J'' 2003;96(1):7-8.</ref> Clinical experience has shown it to be effective against BXO in boys. Ebert ''et al''. (2007) report safety and good results with the use with Tacrolimus ointment.<ref name="ebert">Ebert AK, Vogt T, Rösch WH. ([http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/ebert2007/ Topical therapy of balanitis xerotica obliterans in childhood: Long-term clinical results and an overview.]) ''Urologe A.'' 2007;46(12):1682-6.</ref>
+
Corticosteroids have been used with varying degrees of success.<ref>{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Catterall
 +
|init=RD
 +
|last2=Oakes
 +
|init2=JK
 +
|title=Treatment of balanitis xerotica obiterans with hydrocortisone injections
 +
|journal=Br J Ven Dis
 +
|date=1962
 +
|volume=38
 +
|page=75
 +
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Poynter
 +
|init=JH
 +
|last2=Levy
 +
|init2=J
 +
|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1464-410X.2000.00772.x
 +
|title=Balanitis xerotica obliterans: effective treatment with topical and sublesional corticosteroids
 +
|journal=Br J Urol
 +
|date=1967
 +
|volume=39
 +
|issue=4
 +
|pages=420-5
 +
}}</ref> Pasieczny (1977) reports successful treatment with topical testosterone propionate ointment.<ref name="pasieczny"/><ref name="rickwood-medical">{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Rickwood
 +
|init=AMK
 +
|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1045.x
 +
|title=Medical indications for circumcision
 +
|journal=BJU Int
 +
|date=1999
 +
|volume=83
 +
|issue=Suppl 1
 +
|pages=45-51
 +
}}</ref> Several authorities report success with clobetasol propionate.<ref>{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Jørgensen
 +
|init=ET
 +
|last2=Svensson
 +
|init2=Å
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/jorgensen/
 +
|title=The treatment of phimosis in boys, with a potent topical steroid (clobetasol propionate 0,05%) cream
 +
|journal=Acta Dermato-Venereologica
 +
|location=Stockholm
 +
|date=1993
 +
|volume=73
 +
|issue=1
 +
|pages=55-6
 +
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Jorgensen
 +
|init=ET
 +
|last2=Svensson
 +
|init2=A
 +
|url=https://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/313/7058/692
 +
|title=Problems with the penis and prepuce in children: Lichen sclerosus should be treated with corticosteroids to reduce need for surgery
 +
|journal=BMJ
 +
|date=1996
 +
|volume=313
 +
|page=692
 +
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Dahlman-Ghozlan
 +
|init=K
 +
|last2=Hedblad
 +
|init2=MA
 +
|last3=von Krogh
 +
|init3=G
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/dahlman-ghozlan1/
 +
|title=Penile lichen sclerosus et atrophicus treated with clobetasol dipropionate 0.05% cream: a retrospective clinical and histopathological study
 +
|journal=J Am Acad Dermatol
 +
|date=1999
 +
|volume=40
 +
|issue=3
 +
|pages=451-7
 +
}}</ref><ref name="neuhaus">{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Neuhaus
 +
|init=IM
 +
|last2=Skidmore
 +
|init2=RA
 +
|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10612365/
 +
|title=Balanitis xerotica obliterans and its differential diagnosis
 +
|journal=J Am Board Fam Pract
 +
|date=1999
 +
|volume=12
 +
|issue=6
 +
|pages=473-6
 +
}}</ref> Shelley and colleagues (1999) report successful treatment with antibiotics.<ref>{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Shelley
 +
|init=WB
 +
|last2=Shelley
 +
|init2=ED
 +
|last3=Gruenwald
 +
|init3=MA
 +
|etal=yes
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/shelley1/
 +
|title=Long-term antibiotic therapy for balanitis xerotica obliterans
 +
|journal=J Am Acad Dermatol
 +
|date=1999
 +
|volume=40
 +
|pages=69-72
 +
}}</ref> While Depasquale and colleagues (2000) recommend radical circumcision, they also suggest mometasone or clobetasol cream as a non-surgical alternative.<ref name="depasquale"/> Dewan (2001) reports that BXO is successfully treated with topical steroid ointment during the early stages.<ref>{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Kiss
 +
|init=A
 +
|last2=Csontai
 +
|init2=A
 +
|last3=Pirot L
 +
|etal=yes
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/kiss1/
 +
|title=The response of balanitis xerotica obliterans to local steroid application compared with placebo in children
 +
|journal=J Urol
 +
|date=2001
 +
|volume=165
 +
|issue=1
 +
|pages=219-20
 +
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Neill
 +
|init=SM
 +
|last2=Tatnall
 +
|init2=FM
 +
|last3=Cox
 +
|init3=NH
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/neill2002/
 +
|title=Guidelines for the management of lichen sclerosus
 +
|journal=Br J Dermatol
 +
|date=2002
 +
|volume=147
 +
|pages=640-9
 +
}}</ref> Finkbeiner (2003) reports that tacrolimus ointment is effective for treatment of LSA in women.<ref>{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Finkbeiner
 +
|init=AE
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/finkbeiner2003/
 +
|title=Balanitis xerotica obliterans: a form of lichen sclerosus
 +
|journal=South Med J
 +
|date=2003
 +
|volume=96
 +
|issue=1
 +
|pages=7-8
 +
}}</ref> Clinical experience has shown it to be effective against BXO in boys. Ebert et al. (2007) report safety and good results with the use with Tacrolimus ointment.<ref name="ebert">{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Ebert
 +
|init=AK
 +
|last2=Vogt
 +
|init2=T
 +
|last3=Rösch
 +
|init3=WH
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/ebert2007/
 +
|title=Topical therapy of balanitis xerotica obliterans in childhood: Long-term clinical results and an overview
 +
|journal=Urologe A
 +
|date=2007
 +
|volume=46
 +
|issue=12
 +
|pages=1682-6
 +
}}</ref>
  
 
==== Surgical treatment ====
 
==== Surgical treatment ====
  
−
Rosemberg ''et al''. (1982) Carbon dioxide (CO2) laser surgery has been used with reported good results.<ref>Rosemberg SK, Jacobs H. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/009042958290615X Continuous wave carbon dioxide treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans]. ''Urology'' 1982;19(5):539-41.</ref><ref>Ratz JL. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/ratz1/ Carbon dioxide laser treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans]. ''J Am Acad Dermatol'' 1984;10:925-28.</ref><ref>Rosemberg SK. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/rosemberg1/ Carbon dioxide laser treatment of external genital lesions]. ''Urology'' 1985;25(6):555-8.</ref><ref>Windahl T, Hellsten S. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/windahl1/ Carbon dioxide laser treatment of lichen sclerosus et atrophicus]. ''J Urol'' 1993;150:868-70.</ref><ref>Kartamaa M, Reitamo S. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/kartamaa1/ Treatment of lichen sclerosus with carbon dioxide laser vaporization]. ''Br J Dermatol'' 1997;136:356-9.</ref> A carbon dioxide laser is used to vaporize the lesions. [[Circumcision]] is the conventional radical surgical treatment but sacrifices the [[foreskin|prepuce]].<ref name="rickwood-boys" /><ref name="shankar">Shankar KR, Rickwood AM. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/shankar1/ The incidence of phimosis in boys]. ''BJU Int'' 1999;84(1):101-2.</ref><ref name="neuhaus" /><ref name="rickwood-medical" /><ref name="depasquale" />
+
Rosemberg et al. (1982) Carbon dioxide (CO2) laser surgery has been used with reported good results.<ref>{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Rosemberg
 +
|init=SK
 +
|last2=Jacobs
 +
|init2=H
 +
|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/009042958290615X
 +
|title=Continuous wave carbon dioxide treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans
 +
|journal=Urology
 +
|date=1982
 +
|volume=19
 +
|issue=5
 +
|pages=539-41
 +
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Ratz
 +
|init=JL
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/ratz1/
 +
|title=Carbon dioxide laser treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans
 +
|journal=J Am Acad Dermatol
 +
|date=1984
 +
|volume=10
 +
|pages=925-8
 +
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Rosemberg
 +
|init=SK
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/rosemberg1/
 +
|title=Carbon dioxide laser treatment of external genital lesions
 +
|journal=Urology
 +
|date=1985
 +
|volume=25
 +
|issue=6
 +
|pages=555-8
 +
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Windahl
 +
|init=T
 +
|last2=Hellsten
 +
|init2=S
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/windahl1/
 +
|title=Carbon dioxide laser treatment of lichen sclerosus et atrophicus
 +
|journal=J Urol
 +
|date=1993
 +
|volume=150
 +
|pages=868-70
 +
}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Kartamaa
 +
|init=M
 +
|last2=Reitamo
 +
|init2=S
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/kartamaa1/
 +
|title=Treatment of lichen sclerosus with carbon dioxide laser vaporization
 +
|journal=Br J Dermatol
 +
|date=1997
 +
|volume=136
 +
|pages=356-9
 +
}}</ref> A carbon dioxide laser is used to vaporize the lesions. [[Circumcision]] is the conventional radical surgical treatment but sacrifices the [[foreskin|prepuce]].<ref name="rickwood-boys"/><ref name="shankar">{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Shankar
 +
|init=KR
 +
|last2=Rickwood
 +
|init2=AM
 +
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/shankar1/
 +
|title=The incidence of phimosis in boys
 +
|journal=BJU Int
 +
|date=1999
 +
|volume=84
 +
|issue=1
 +
|pages=101-2
 +
}}</ref><ref name="neuhaus"/><ref name="rickwood-medical"/><ref name="depasquale"/>
  
 
== Conclusion ==
 
== Conclusion ==
  
−
There still seems to a wide range of opinion on the best treatment modalities for BXO. The cause is still unknown, although Shelley ''et al''. (1999) hypothesize spirochete infection.<ref name="neuhaus" /> More research is needed. Now, however, there is a good possibility of successful treatment without radical circumcision.<ref>{{REFjournal
+
There still seems to a wide range of opinion on the best treatment modalities for BXO. The cause is still unknown, although Shelley et al. (1999) hypothesize spirochete infection.<ref name="neuhaus" /> More research is needed. Now, however, there is a good possibility of successful treatment without radical circumcision.<ref>{{REFjournal
 
  |last=Dalton
 
  |last=Dalton
−
  |init=JD
+
  |init=JDD
 
  |author-link=John Dalton
 
  |author-link=John Dalton
−
  |url=http://bmj.com/cgi/eletters/321/7264/792#10014
+
  |url=https://www.bmj.com/rapid-response/2011/10/28/bxo-does-not-require-treatment-circumcision
 
  |title=BXO does not require treatment by circumcision (letter)
 
  |title=BXO does not require treatment by circumcision (letter)
 
  |journal=BMJ
 
  |journal=BMJ
−
  |date=2000
+
  |date=2000-10-02
−
}} rapid response pages.</ref> The trend today seems to be for greater use of medical treatment and  less use of radical surgery in the treatment of BXO.
+
|volume=321
 +
|page=792
 +
}}</ref> The trend today seems to be for greater use of medical treatment and  less use of radical surgery in the treatment of BXO.
 +
 
 +
{{LINKS}}
 +
* {{REFweb
 +
|url=https://www.cuh.nhs.uk/patient-information/balanitis-xerotica-obliterans-bxo-in-boys-information-for-parents-and-carers/
 +
|title=Balanitis Xerotica Obliterans (BXO) in boys – Information for parents and carers
 +
|last=Anonymous
 +
|first=
 +
|init=
 +
|publisher=National Health Service (UK)
 +
|date=2022-06-01
 +
|accessdate=2024-03-20
 +
}}
  
 
{{REF}}
 
{{REF}}
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[[Category:Penile disorder]]
 
[[Category:Penile disorder]]
 
[[Category:Penile illness]]
 
[[Category:Penile illness]]
 +
  
 
[[Category:From IntactWiki]]
 
[[Category:From IntactWiki]]

Latest revision as of 11:18, 21 March 2024

IntactiWikiGraphicWarning.png

Balanitis xerotica obliterans

Balanitis Xerotica Obliterans (BXO) is also known as Lichen Sclerosis et Atrophicus (LSA).[1][2][3][4] First described in Germany by Stühmer in 1928,[5] it is a skin disease of unknown etiology[1] and occurs in both males and females. BXO is the name traditionally used when the disease afflicts the male sexual organs, while LSA is the name applied when the disease appears in a female or a male in other than the genital organs. An older name for BXO is kraurosis glandii et praeputii penis.[1][6]

This page is limited to information about the disease in males when it affects the genital organs. For information on the disease in females see Lichen Sclerosus.

Affecting only 6 in 1000 males (0.6%), BXO is a rare disease which can affect males at any age.[3] As rare as it may be, BXO is a relatively serious disease. It can cause urethral stricture and retention of urine.[1] Malignant tumors have been reported to develop from BXO, albeit very rarely.[1][7] Meffert et al. (1995) provide a recent review of the literature.[8] A person with BXO or suspected BXO should be under the care of a medical doctor.

Diagnosis

Freeman & Laymon (1941) provide a detailed classic description of the disease:[1] BXO is usually distinguished by a ring of hardened tissue with a whitish color at the tip of the foreskin. The hardening of the tissue prevents retraction of the foreskin.[7] Immunophenotyping may be useful in differential diagnosis.[9] Histologic examination of cutaneous biopsy gives a definite diagnosis.[10][11][7][12] The presence of BXO must be confirmed in order to consider the choice of treatment modality. If the biopsy rules out BXO as a cause of non-retractile foreskin, then conservative treatment is most likely possible. If, on the other hand, a biopsy confirms the presence of BXO, the choice of treatment modality is more difficult.

Treatment

In the past, the traditional treatment of BXO has been radical circumcision.[13] However, many conservative treatment options are now available.

Conventional vs. conservative treatment

Conventional medical wisdom has stated that BXO is an absolute indication for circumcision,[13] however, this treatment modality dates from a time when the prepuce was considered to have no value for the individual. In more recent times, this is no longer the case, as the function and value of the prepuce are now being recognized, and males may wish for treatment that preserves the integrity of their organs; protection of the individual from unnecessarily radical surgery is always a doctor's prerogative. Fortunately, thanks to advances in modern medicine, researchers have reported some success with conservative therapies for BXO that spare the patient from surgery and preserve the prepuce.

Non-surgical treatment

Corticosteroids have been used with varying degrees of success.[14][15] Pasieczny (1977) reports successful treatment with topical testosterone propionate ointment.[10][16] Several authorities report success with clobetasol propionate.[17][18][19][20] Shelley and colleagues (1999) report successful treatment with antibiotics.[21] While Depasquale and colleagues (2000) recommend radical circumcision, they also suggest mometasone or clobetasol cream as a non-surgical alternative.[12] Dewan (2001) reports that BXO is successfully treated with topical steroid ointment during the early stages.[22][23] Finkbeiner (2003) reports that tacrolimus ointment is effective for treatment of LSA in women.[24] Clinical experience has shown it to be effective against BXO in boys. Ebert et al. (2007) report safety and good results with the use with Tacrolimus ointment.[25]

Surgical treatment

Rosemberg et al. (1982) Carbon dioxide (CO2) laser surgery has been used with reported good results.[26][27][28][29][30] A carbon dioxide laser is used to vaporize the lesions. Circumcision is the conventional radical surgical treatment but sacrifices the prepuce.[11][7][20][16][12]

Conclusion

There still seems to a wide range of opinion on the best treatment modalities for BXO. The cause is still unknown, although Shelley et al. (1999) hypothesize spirochete infection.[20] More research is needed. Now, however, there is a good possibility of successful treatment without radical circumcision.[31] The trend today seems to be for greater use of medical treatment and less use of radical surgery in the treatment of BXO.

External links

References

  1. ↑ a b c d e f REFjournal Freeman C, Laymon CW. Balanitis xerotica obliterans. Arch Dermat Syph (Chicago). 1941; 44(4): 547-59.
  2. ↑ REFjournal Laymon CW, Freeman C. Relationship of Balanitis xerotica obliterans to lichen sclerosis et atrophicus. Arch Derm Syph (Chicago). 1944; 49: 57-9.
  3. ↑ a b REFjournal Parsad D, Saini R. Oral Stanozolol in Lichen Sclerosus et Atrophicus (archive URL). J Am Acad Dermatol. February 1998; 38(2 pt. 1): 278-9.
  4. ↑ REFjournal Finkbeiner AE. Balanitis xerotica obliterans: a form of lichen sclerosus. South Med J. 2003; 96(1): 7-8.
  5. ↑ REFjournal Stühmer A. Balanitis xerotica obiterans und ihre Beziehungen zur 'Kraurosis glandi et praeputii penis'. Arch Dermatol Syph (Berlin). 1928; 156: 613. DOI.
  6. ↑ REFjournal McKay DL Jr, Fuqua F, Weinberg AG. Balanitis xerotica obliterans in children. J Urol. 1975; 114(5): 773-5.
  7. ↑ a b c d REFjournal Shankar KR, Rickwood AM. The incidence of phimosis in boys. BJU Int. 1999; 84(1): 101-2.
  8. ↑ REFjournal Meffert JJ, Davis BM, Grimwood RE. Lichen Sclerosus. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1995; 32(3): 393-416.
  9. ↑ REFjournal Hinchliffe SA, Ciftci AO, Khine MM, et al. Composition of the inflammatory infiltrate in pediatric penile lichen sclerosus et atrophicus (balanitis xerotica obliterans): a prospective, comparative immunophenotyping study. Pediatr Pathol. 1994; 14(2): 223-33.
  10. ↑ a b REFjournal Pasieczny TAH. The treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans with testosterone propionate ointment. Acta Derm Venerol (Stockholm). 1977; 57: 275-7.
  11. ↑ a b REFjournal Rickwood AMK, Hemalatha V, Batcup G, Spitz L. Phimosis in Boys. Brit J Urol. 1980; 52: 147-50.
  12. ↑ a b c REFjournal Depasquale I, Park AJ, Bracka A. The treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans. BJU Int. 2000; 86(4): 459-65.
  13. ↑ a b REFjournal Meuli M, Briner J, Hanimann B, Sacher P. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus causing phimosis in boys: a prospective study with 5-year followup after complete circumcision. J Urol. 1994; 152(3): 987-9.
  14. ↑ REFjournal Catterall RD, Oakes JK. Treatment of balanitis xerotica obiterans with hydrocortisone injections. Br J Ven Dis. 1962; 38: 75.
  15. ↑ REFjournal Poynter JH, Levy J. Balanitis xerotica obliterans: effective treatment with topical and sublesional corticosteroids. Br J Urol. 1967; 39(4): 420-5.
  16. ↑ a b REFjournal Rickwood AMK. Medical indications for circumcision. BJU Int. 1999; 83(Suppl 1): 45-51.
  17. ↑ REFjournal Jørgensen ET, Svensson Å. The treatment of phimosis in boys, with a potent topical steroid (clobetasol propionate 0,05%) cream. Acta Dermato-Venereologica (Stockholm). 1993; 73(1): 55-6.
  18. ↑ REFjournal Jorgensen ET, Svensson A. Problems with the penis and prepuce in children: Lichen sclerosus should be treated with corticosteroids to reduce need for surgery. BMJ. 1996; 313: 692.
  19. ↑ REFjournal Dahlman-Ghozlan K, Hedblad MA, von Krogh G. Penile lichen sclerosus et atrophicus treated with clobetasol dipropionate 0.05% cream: a retrospective clinical and histopathological study. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1999; 40(3): 451-7.
  20. ↑ a b c REFjournal Neuhaus IM, Skidmore RA. Balanitis xerotica obliterans and its differential diagnosis. J Am Board Fam Pract. 1999; 12(6): 473-6.
  21. ↑ REFjournal Shelley WB, Shelley ED, Gruenwald MA, et al. Long-term antibiotic therapy for balanitis xerotica obliterans. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1999; 40: 69-72.
  22. ↑ REFjournal Kiss A, Csontai A, Pirot L, et al. The response of balanitis xerotica obliterans to local steroid application compared with placebo in children. J Urol. 2001; 165(1): 219-20.
  23. ↑ REFjournal Neill SM, Tatnall FM, Cox NH. Guidelines for the management of lichen sclerosus. Br J Dermatol. 2002; 147: 640-9.
  24. ↑ REFjournal Finkbeiner AE. Balanitis xerotica obliterans: a form of lichen sclerosus. South Med J. 2003; 96(1): 7-8.
  25. ↑ REFjournal Ebert AK, Vogt T, Rösch WH. Topical therapy of balanitis xerotica obliterans in childhood: Long-term clinical results and an overview. Urologe A. 2007; 46(12): 1682-6.
  26. ↑ REFjournal Rosemberg SK, Jacobs H. Continuous wave carbon dioxide treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans. Urology. 1982; 19(5): 539-41.
  27. ↑ REFjournal Ratz JL. Carbon dioxide laser treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1984; 10: 925-8.
  28. ↑ REFjournal Rosemberg SK. Carbon dioxide laser treatment of external genital lesions. Urology. 1985; 25(6): 555-8.
  29. ↑ REFjournal Windahl T, Hellsten S. Carbon dioxide laser treatment of lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. J Urol. 1993; 150: 868-70.
  30. ↑ REFjournal Kartamaa M, Reitamo S. Treatment of lichen sclerosus with carbon dioxide laser vaporization. Br J Dermatol. 1997; 136: 356-9.
  31. ↑ REFjournal Dalton JDD. BXO does not require treatment by circumcision (letter). BMJ. 2 October 2000; 321: 792.
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