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Non-therapeutic [[Circumcisioncircumcision]] is often performed on consenting adults and on non-consenting children for cultural or religious reasons. In the cultures and religions where it is practiced, circumcision may be a norm, recommendation or even a requirement. This page analyzes how circumcision is viewed in different cultures and religions.

In some cultures, non-therapeutic [[circumcision ]] is a social norm, recommendation, or even a requirement. In some cultures, circumcision is viewed as a rite of passage, and a male may not be considered a privileged adult until he has undergone circumcision. In others, it is seen as "unclean" not to be [[circumcised]], and consider the circumcised penis to be more aesthetically pleasing.

Circumcision, particularly male infant non-therapeutic [[circumcision has ]] had become entrenched in [[United States of America| American culture]], because of promotion by the [[Circumcision industry]], but now is in a declining pattern. Beginning in the Victorian period, men and children were [[circumcised ]] to make [[masturbation]] difficult, because [[masturbation]] was seen as the root of many diseases. Circumcising newborn infants grew into a trend which peaked during the 60's and 70's. Movements to end circumcision began in the late 70's, and so the rate incidence of circumcision genital [[intactness]] has dropped increased significantly. Medicaid unlawfully provides [[third-party payment]] for medically-unnecessary, non-therapeutic circumcision in many states<ref name="adler2011">{{REFjournal |last=Adler |first=Peter W. |init=PW |author-link=Peter W. Adler |title=It is lawful to use Medicaid to pay for circumcision? |journal=Journal of Law and Medicine |date=2011 |volume=19 |issue= |pages=335-353 |url=https://www.arclaw.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/is-it-lawful-to-use-medicaid-to-pay-for-circumcision.pdf |quote= |pubmedID= |pubmedCID= |DOI= |accessdate=2021-05-17}}</ref> and that keeps the incidence high. Be that as it may, at 8062% <ref name="moore2015">{{REFweb |url=https://today.yougov.com/topics/lifestyle/articles-reports/2015/02/03/younger-americans-circumcision |title=Young Americans less supportive of circumcision at birth |last=Moore |first=Peter |date=2015-02-03 |accessdate=2022-08-13}}</ref> the American male population remains largely [[circumcised at large]] in most states and about 900, and 1.3 000 male newborns are circumcised receive non-therapeutic [[circumcision]] every year. Despite the financially self-serving promotional efforts of the [[Circumcision industry]], the incidence of non-therapeutic [[circumcision]] of infant boys in the [[United States]] was reported to have continued its slow decline to 52.1 percent in 2016.<ref name="jacobson2021">{{REFjournal |last=Jacobson |first=Deborah L. |init= |author-link= |last2=Balmert |first2=Lauren C. |init2= |author2-link= |last3=Holl |first3=Jane L. |init3= |author3-link= |last4=Rosoklija |first4=Ilina |init4= |author4-link= |last5=Davis |first5=Matthew M. |init5= |author5-link= |last6=Johnson |first6Emilie K. |init6= |author6-link= |etal=no |title=Nationwide Circumcision Trends: 2003 to 2016 |trans-title= |language= |journal=J Urol |location= |date=2021-01 |volume=205 |issue=1 |article= |pages=257-63 |url=https://www.auajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1097/JU.0000000000001316 |pubmedID=32716676 |pubmedCID= |DOI=10.1097/JU.0000000000001316 |accessdate=2023-09-26}}</ref> Further gradual decline is expected.

Circumcision Non-therapeutic circumcision is seen as a rite of passage in many African tribal traditions.<refname="Schloss 1988">{{REFbook |last=Schloss, |first=Marc R. '' |init=MR |title=The Hatchet’s Blood: Separation, Power, and Gender in Ehing Social Life.'' |location=Tucson: |publisher={{UNI|University of Arizona |UArizona}} Press, |year=1988. |pages=76-77}}</ref><refname="Heald 1989">{{REFbook |last=Heald, |first=Suzette. '' |init=S |title=Controlling Anger: The Sociology of Gisu Violence.'' |location=Manchester: |publisher={{UNI|Manchester University |UOM}} Press, |year=1989. |page=60}}</ref><ref>{{REFbook |last=Bloch, |first=Maurice. '' |init=M |title=From Blessing to Violence: History and Ideology in the Circumcision Ritual of the Merina of Madagascar.'' |location=Cambridge: |publisher={{UNI|Cambridge University |UCam}} Press, |year=1986.}}</ref><ref>{{REFbook |last=Beidelman, T. O. |init=TO |title=The Cool Knife: Imagery of Gender, Sexuality, and Moral Education in Kaguru Initiation Ritual. |location=Washington, D.C.: {{USSC|DC}} |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press, |year=1997.}}</ref><ref>{{REFbook |last=Turner, |first=Victor. " |init=V |chapter=Mukanda: The Rite of Circumcision." ''In |title=The Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual.'' |location=Ithaca: |publisher={{UNI|Cornell University |CU}} Press, |year=1967.}}</ref> In some African societies, a man who has not been [[circumcised ]] is seen as a child, and unfit to take on the duties of a "man" (IE, someone who has been [[circumcised]]), such as positions of office and authority.

Boys and men are [[circumcised ]] at different ages depending on the African society. Practices obviously vary. Among the Ehing of Senegal, the major idea of the ritual is to "spill sexual blood," and with the very young just the tip of the [[skin ]] is considered sufficient for them to have entered the initiation. Children whose wounds have closed too completely were subjected to repeat operations, with the second cutting being much more extensive.<ref>name="Schloss, Marc R. The Hatchet’s Blood: Separation, Power, and Gender in Ehing Social Life. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1988. pp. 76-77.<"/ref> Among the Gisu of Uganda, only youths aged eighteen to twenty-four are eligible for [[adult circumcision| circumcision]], which is perceived as a crucial test of masculine bravery and endurance. The youth must stand absolutely still while first their foreskins are being cut and then stripped from around the [[glans penis]]. They are required to display total fortitude under the knife, betraying no signs of fear, not even involuntary twitching or blinking. The Gisu describe the pain as "fierce, bitter, and terrifying."<ref>name="Heald, Suzette. Controlling Anger: The Sociology of Gisu Violence. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989. pp. 60.<"/ref>

[[Subincision ]] is practiced by native Australians. This involves slitting open the underside of the [[penis]], revealing the [[urethra]]. The wound may be reopened and extended to cause renewed bloodletting, making this possibly the most dramatic of all male genital mutilations.<ref>{{REFbook |last=Gould, |first=Richard A. '' |init=RA |title=Yiwara: Foragers of the Australian Desert.'' |location=New York: |publisher=Scribner’s, |year=1969.}}</ref><ref>{{REFbook |last=Ro´heim, |first=Ge´za. '' |init=G |title=The Eternal Ones of the Dream: A Psychoanalytic Interpretation of Australian Myth and Ritual.'' |location=New York: |publisher=International Universities Press |year=1945}}</ref>  Among Australians of European origin, the incidence of [[circumcision]] in [[Australia]] is reported to have declined to about 4 percent of newborn boys. [[Intact]] males have been in the ever-increasing majority for many years. Prevalence of circumcision is steadily declining and was reported at 30 percent in 2010.<ref>{{REFweb |url=http://www.circinfo.org/statistics.html |title=Incidence and prevalence of circumcision in Australia |last=Anonymous |first= |init= |publisher=Circumcision Information Australia |date=2017 |accessdate=2024-02-06}}</ref> ===Canada=== The practice of non-therapeutic circumcision in [[Canada]] has been declining for decades. The [[medical trade association| medical trade associations]] do not support the practice, most hospitals usually do not provide non-therapeutic [[circumcision]], and the fourteen health insurance plans do not pay for it. Statistics have not been collected since 2006-7,<ref>{{REFdocument |title=What Mothers Say: The Canadian Maternity Experiences Survey |url=https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/phac-aspc/migration/phac-aspc/rhs-ssg/pdf/survey-eng.pdf |contribution= |last= |first= |publisher=Public Health Agency of Canada |format=PDF |date=2009 |accessdate=2024-02-06}}</ref> so do not reflect the current reality.. The incidence of circumcision varies widely by province and ethnicity, so it is difficult to produce a statistic for all-Canada. [[Foreskinned]] males are in the majority in all provinces and territories. ===New Zealand=== The native Maori people of [[New Zealand]] do not circumcise. The European population of New Zealand formerly practiced non-therapeutic circumcision of boys but that practice has been generally abandoned. The Pacific island minority practice [[dorsal slit]], 1945which is part of their culture.<ref name="mcgrath-young2001">{{REFbook |last=McGrath |first=Ken |init=K |author-link=Ken McGrath |last2=Young |first2=Hugh |init2=H |author2-link=Hugh Young |year=2001 |chapter=Review of Circumcision in New Zealand |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4757-3351-8_8 A |work= |editors=[[George C. Denniston]], [[Frederick M. Hodges]], [[Marilyn Fayre Milos]] |edition= |volume= |title=Understanding Circumcision: A Multi-Disciplinary Approach to a Multi-Dimensional Problem |pages=129-146 |location=New York |publisher=Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers |isbn=978-0306467011 |quote= |accessdate=2021-05-17 |note=}}</ref> ===United Kingdom=== Non-therapeutic [[circumcision]] of boys was a practice in the [[United Kingdom]] prior to about 1948. The National Health Service did not then and does not now offer non-therapeutic [[circumcision]] of boys,<ref name="nhschild">{{REFweb |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/circumcision-in-boys/ |archived= |title=Circumcision in boys |trans-title= |language= |last= |first= |author-link= |publisher=National Health Service |website= |date=2018-11-20 |accessdate=2024-02-06 |format= |quote=}}</ref> so the practice was abandoned. Abandonment of non-therapeutic circumcision was encouraged by [[Douglas Gairdner]] whose landmark 1949 paper pointed out the lack of benefit and risks of non-therapeutic circumcision.<ref>{{GairdnerDM 1949}}</ref> Dave et al. (2003) reported a declining prevalence of circumcision in Britain.<ref name="dave2003">{{REFjournal |last=Dave |first=Sangreta S. |init=SS |last2=Johnson |init2=AM |last3=Fenton |init3=KA |author3-link= |etal=no |title=Male circumcision in Britain: findings from a national probability sample survey |journal=Sex Trans Infect |date=2003-12 |volume=79 |issue=6 |pages=499-500 |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/general/dave1/ |pubmedID=14663134 |pubmedCID=1744763 |DOI=10.1136/sti.79.6.499 |accessdate=2021-05-18}}</ref>

In some religions, [[circumcision ]] is a religious mandate and it is marked as such in holy scriptureScripture. Some people mistakenly hold the belief that circumcision is a requirement of their religion, even though it may not actually be mentioned in the pertaining holy scripture, or even forbidden by it. This page analyzes different religions and what their holy scriptures actually say in regards to circumcision as a religious requirement. === Judaism === Of all of the commandments in [[Judaism]], the [[Brit Milah| brit milah]] (literally, [[Abrahamic covenant| Covenant of Circumcision]]) is probably the one most universally observed. It is commonly referred to as a bris (covenant, using the Ashkenazic pronunciation). Even the most secular of Jews, who observe no other part of [[Judaism]], almost always observes this tradition.<ref>{{REFweb |url=http://www.jewfaq.org/birth.htm |title=Jew FAQ "Birth"}}</ref> However, in In the 613 mitzvot, Jews are commanded: :''"do not mark your [[skin]] with tattoos." (Lev. 19:28) "you shall not cut yourselves." (Deut. 14:1)'' :''"Ye shall not make any cuttings in your flesh. (Lev. 19:28)'' Halacha provides for the ceremony of hatifat dam berit (shedding of a token drop of blood) for babies who can not be [[circumcised]] due to health reasons. This is deemed to be completely valid in marking the Covenant.  Further, being [[circumcised]] is not a condition of being Jewish. Girls do not need to be [[circumcised]] to receive the gifts of covenant, i.e., receiving bat-mitzva. A boy is considered to be Jewish if his mother is Jewish from the moment he is born. In fact: * A boy may be excused from [[circumcision]] permanently if his health would be endangered by it (for example, hemophilia).* Jewish boys in countries where non-therapeutic circumcision is not common, such as [[Netherlands| Holland]], may be left [[intact]] and yet remain Jews in good standing.* In [[Sweden]], 60% of Jewish boys are [[intact]].* Many Soviet Jews, left [[intact]] for fear of communist persecution, have chosen to remain so, even though communism no longer exists.* Some Jewish parents are electing to have a non-cutting, harmless naming ceremony, frequently called "[[Brit Shalom]]" instead of a ritual circumcision.* Contrary to popular opinions, an [[intact]] boy may have a Bar Mitzvah. As one rabbi simply put it, “We don’t check.”* Since many American Christians practice [[circumcision]], it does not distinguish the Jewish boys from the non-Jewish.<ref name="Britshalom"/> Modern Jewish scholars have found that [[circumcision]] is not even mentioned in the earliest, “J”, version of Genesis nor the next three rewrites by other authors. Most importantly, the story of Abraham is there in its entirety, except the part about the [[Abrahamic covenant| Covenant]] being “sealed” with circumcision. So do not be afraid of divine punishment. God did not mandate circumcision. [[Brit Shalom]] offers an alternative free of cutting, [[pain]], and [[trauma]]. [[Bruchim]] was founded in 2021 by [[Lisa Braver Moss]] and [[Rebecca Wald]] with a goal of making non-circumcision acceptable in American synagogues.

The Christian Fathers considered the question of circumcision at the [[Council at Jerusalem]] in 49 A. D. Guided by the Holy Spirit, they omitted [[circumcision]] from the list of requirements to be Christian.<ref>{{REFweb |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+15%3A1-30&version=NASB |title=Acts 13:1-30}}</ref> Circumcision is expressly forbidden to gentiles. Whereas Jews adhere to 613 laws and commandments, called "mitzvots" in Hebrew, Christians are supposed to be saved by the blood and grace of Christ, hence the name ''"Christ-ian." '' At various points in the New Testament<ref>The Holy Bible</ref>, Christians are told to either follow the law, or be saved by the grace of Christ alone.

:''"As God has called each man, in this manner let him walk. And thus I command in all the churches. Was any man called in the circumcision [Old Covenant]? Let him not try to become [[uncircumcised]]. Has anyone been called in the uncircumcision [New Covenant in Christ]? Let him not be circumcised! Circumcision is nothing. And uncircumcision is nothing but the keeping of the commandments of God. Let each man remain in that condition in which he was called." - 1 Cor. 7:17''

|url=http://www.cirp.org/pages/cultural/christian.htmlphp

The Christian Bible contains two sections. The first section, called the ''Old Testament'' was originally written in Hebrew. It was the Jewish Bible and contains may passages that may favor [[Brit Milah| circumcision]]. This requirement has been abolished for Christians by the New Testament. The second section, called the "New Testament", is the Christian addition to the Holy Bible. It contains the correct information for Christians. Some new or ill-informed Christians may be confused by the differences in the two sections.

Circumcision is widely believed to be a good "Christian value" by Christians in different parts of the world, including the United States{{citation needed}}, South Korea {{citation needed}} and The Philippines {{citation needed}}. === Judaism === Of all of the commandments in Judaismsecond section, called the brit milah (literally"New Testament", Covenant of Circumcision) is probably the one most universally observed. It is commonly referred Christian addition to as a bris (covenant, using the Ashkenazic pronunciation)Holy Bible. Even the most secular of Jews, who observe no other part of Judaism, almost always observes this tradition. <ref>[http://www.jewfaq.org/birth.htm Jew FAQ "Birth"]</ref> However, in In [Council at Jerusalem| It contains the 613 mitzvot, Jews are commanded: :''"do not mark your skin with tattoos." (Lev. 19:28) "you shall not cut yourselves." (Deut. 14:1)'' :''"Ye shall not make any cuttings in your flesh. (Lev. 19:28)'' Halacha provides correct information for the ceremony of hatifat dam berit (shedding of a token drop of blood) for babies who can not be circumcised due to health reasons. This is deemed to be completely valid in marking the Covenant. <ref name="Britshalom">[http://www.jewsagainstcircumcision.org/ Jews Against Circumcision, Brit ShalomChristians]]</ref> Modern Jewish scholars have found that circumcision is not even mentioned in the earliest, “J”, version of Genesis nor the next three rewrites by other authors. Most importantly, the story of Abraham is there in its entirety, except the part about the Covenant being “sealed” with circumcision. So do not be afraid of divine punishment. God did not mandate circumcision.<ref name="Britshalom"/> Further, being circumcised is not a condition of being Jewish. Girls do not need to be circumcised to receive the gifts of covenant, i.e., receiving batSome new or ill-mitzva. A boy is Jewish if his mother is Jewish from the moment he is born. In fact: * A boy informed Christians may be excused from circumcision permanently if his health would be endangered confused by it (for example, hemophilia).* Jewish boys the differences in countries where routine circumcision is not common, such as Holland, may be left intact and yet remain Jews in good standing.* In Sweden, 60% of Jewish boys are intact.* Many Soviet Jews, left intact for fear of communist persecution, have chosen to remain so, even though communism no longer exists.* Contrary to popular opinions, an intact boy may have a Bar Mitzvah. As one rabbi simply put it, “We don’t check.”* Since many American Christians practice circumcision, it does not distinguish the Jewish boys from the non-Jewishtwo sections.<ref name="Britshalom"/>

Although [[circumcision ]] is never mentioned in the Qur'an, male circumcision is deeply rooted in the Muslim tradition. Muhammad is reported to have prescribed cutting the [[foreskin ]] as a fitrah, a measure of personal cleanliness. Modern Muslims see circumcision as essential to their faith, although they have also come to lean on arguments of "medical benefits." A conference of Islamic scholars in 1987 stated that modern circumcision studies “[reflect] the wisdom of the Islamic statements”.<ref>Gollaher, David L. Circumcision: A History of the World's Most Controversial Surgery. New York: Basic Books, {{GollaherDL 2000.}}</ref>

The prophet Ibrahim (Abraham) is not [[circumcised ]] in the Qur'an, or if he is, no mention is ever made in the 67 times that his name is written. A covenant sealed with circumcision is also never mentioned.<ref name="QuaranicPath">[{{REFweb |url=http://www.quranicpath.com/misconceptions/circumcision.html |website=QuaranicPath " |title=Circumcision - Does the Qur'an Approve it?"]}}</ref> Despite never being mentioned in the Qur'an, it is still widely practiced among followers of [[Islam ]] in the Middle East, North Africa, and Southeast Asia, who interpret it as an Islamic ceremony.<ref>{{REFbook |last=Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh, |first=Sami A. "Chapter |init=SA |author-link=Sami Aldeeb |chapter=3: Circumcision among Muslims." '' |title=Male and Female Circumcision: Among Jews, Christians, and Muslims''. |location=Warren Center, Pa.: {{USSC|PA}} |publisher=Shangri-La, |year=2001.}}</ref> The Muslim code of religious law (AKA Shariah) recommends performance of circumcision at the age of seven days. In practice, however, Muslim boys are circumcised at varying ages before puberty.<ref>{{REFbook |last=Morgenstern, |first=Julian. '' |init=J |title=Rites of Birth, Marriage, Death and Kindred Occasions among the Semites.'' |location=Chicago: |publisher=Quadrangle Books, |year=1966. pp. |pages=48-66 " |quote=...in modern Moslem practice the rite is performed generally between the ages of two and seven years... as late as the thirteenth year.’’}}</ref><ref>{{REFbook |last=Mehta, |first=Depak. " |chapter=Circumcision, Body, Masculinity." ''In |title=Violence and Subjectivity'', ed. |editors=Veena Das, Arthur Kleinman, et al. |location=Berkeley: |publisher={{UNI|University of California |UCBE}} Press, |year=2000. pp. |page=82 " |quote=...two to six years."}}</ref><ref>{{REFbook |last=Peletz, |first=Michael G. |title=Reason and Passion: Representations of Gender in a Malay Society. |location=Berkeley: |publisher={{UNI|University of California |UCBE}} Press, |year=1996. pp. |page=240 " |quote=[Among Muslims in Negeri Sembilan, West Malaysia, boys] are usually [[circumcised ]] when they are about twelve years old."}}</ref><ref>{{REFbook |last=Crapanzano, |first=Vincent. ‘‘Rite |init=V |chapter=Rite of Return: Circumcision in Morocco.’’ In |title=Hermes’ Dilemma and Hamlet’s Desire: On the Epistemology of Interpretation. |location=Cambridge, Mass.: {{USSC|MA}} |publisher={{UNI|Harvard University |HU}} Press, |year=1992.}}</ref> According to Genesis 17, Abraham [[circumcised ]] Ishmael, who is supposed to be the the ancestor of Arab peoples, at the age thirteen, which is why this age is generally taken as the latest acceptable date.

[[Intact ]] existence is actually favored by the Qur'an: "We have indeed created man in the 'best of moulds'." (Qur'an 95:4) The idea that Allah has created everything in perfection is repeated in 27:88, 32:7, and 40:64. "Allah is the One who made the Earth a habitat for you, and the sky as a structure, and He designed you, and has perfected your design." "You will not see any flaw in what the Lord of Mercy creates." (Qur'an 67:3)

Finally, according to the Qur'an, [[circumcision ]] may be seen as an act of evil: "(Satan said), 'I will lead them (mankind) astray and fill them with false hopes. I will command them and they will cut off cattle's ears. I will command them and they will change Allah's creation.' Anyone who takes Satan as his protector in place of Allah has clearly lost everything. He makes promises to them and fills them with false hopes. But what Satan promises them is nothing but delusion." (Qur'an 4:119-120) <ref name="QuaranicPath"/>

There are no guiding books for pagans, but in general, there are a few guiding principals. Mainly, the worship or love of nature in its natural form is a connection between different types of pagans. However, Wicca has a guiding rule called the Rede: "An ye harm none, do as thou wilt." One can certainly see the ritual removal of a functioning part of the human anatomy for no purpose as 'harm,' particularly given the risks involved. Thus, it would be anathema to a pagan who follows the Rede to submit their child to [[circumcision]].

No other religion is cited as encouraging [[circumcision]], though many cultures practice it.{{citation needed}}