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Pain
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As a result, medical doctors performed all manners of invasive, painful procedures on neonates without anesthesia or analgesia, including millions upon millions of painful circumcisions and even open heart surgery. Open heart surgery was performed with curare to paralyze the infant but without any anesthesia.
Flechsig's opinion was not questioned until the 1970s. Several lines of research carried out in the 1970s suggested that infants do feel pain. Anders ''et al''. (1970) showed that measurement of serum cortisol is useful for psychological investigation in infancy.<ref name="anders1970">{{REFjournal |last=Anders |first=Thomas F. |author-link= |last2=Sachar |first2=Edward J. |author2-link= |last3=Kream |first3=Jacob |author3-link= |last4=Roffwarg |first4=Howard P. |author4-link= |last5=Hellman |first5=Leon |author5-link= |etal=no |title=Behavioral state and plasma cortisol response in the human neonate |trans-title= |language=English |journal=Pediatrics |location= |date=1970-10 |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=532-7 |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/pain/anders1/ |archived= |quote= |pubmedID=4323242 |pubmedCID= |DOI= |accessdate=2020-11-13}}</ref> Richards, Bernal, and Brackbill (1976) discovered behavioral differences between American boys (circumcised) and British boys (intact).<ref name="richards1976">{{REFjournal
|last=Richards
|first=M.P.M.
|issue=3
|pages=447
|url=httphttps://wwwpediatrics.cirpaappublications.org/librarycontent/pain46/aap4/532
|archived=
|quote=