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normalize et al. (AMA)
Some people claim that circumcision has prophylactic benefits. Especially in the USA those arguments have persisted for more then a 100 years, with ever changing diseases circumcision is said to protect against. At first, these were diseases where [[masturbation]] was believed to be the cause. After bacteria and viruses had been discovered, arguments changed, and one after another miscellaneous diseases were cited.
* [[Phimosis]]: as mentioned earlier, true [[phimosis]] is rare and can be treated effectively without surgery. According to a study by Blalock ''et al.'' (2003)<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Blalock
|init=HJ
* Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs): a vast number of studies has been conducted on the subject of transmission of STDs.
* First, it has to be noted that any form of protection against these diseases only affects people who are sexually active. Circumcision in childhood cannot be justified on these grounds, since any assumed protective effect will not occur before the boy is already old enough to decide about circumcision for himself.
* As mentioned above, the [[foreskin]] keeps the [[Glans penis|glans]] moist. This subpreputial moisture contains, among other substances, the enzyme lysozyme, which breaks up the cell wall of bacteria, thereby providing a natural antibacterial screen. This explains the results of several studies, such as Laumann ''et al.''<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Laumann
|init=EO
|accessdate=2019-11-06
}}</ref>, which found a higher rate of infection with bacterial venereal diseases in circumcised than in intact men.
* The studies by Fleiss ''et al.'' (1998) support this.<ref name="fleiss-hodges-vanhowe1998">{{REFjournal
|last=Fleiss
|init=PM
|url=
|accessdate=
}}</ref> found that, during the first 6 years of life, the incidence of UTIs in boys was 1.8%, but in girls was 6.6%. UTIs are less common in boys after the first year of life. Mueller ''et al.'' <ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Mueller
|init=ER
* [[Wound dehiscence]], meaning the separation of the edges of the wound or the tissue after suturing.
* Adhesion between the surface or rim of the [[Glans penis|glans]] with the neighbouring penile skin, causing skin pockets and bridges, as well as visually unpleasant results like uneven scars, which make a re-circumcision necessary.
* Postoperative [[phimosis]]: a phimotic ring can develop during scarring, which makes a re-circumcision necessary. According to a study by Blalock ''et al.''<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Blalock
|init=HJ
=== Physical late effects ===
* An unavoidable late effect of any circumcision is the permanent loss of sexual sensitivity. This is partly due to the removal of sensory tissue. The [[foreskin]] contains very many nerve endings and touch receptors, which account for the major part of male sexual sensation. If the [[foreskin]] is removed, they can no longer provide sexual stimulation. It is also partly due to the fact that the surface of the [[Glans penis|glans]] reacts to the missing protection from friction and drying out by developing a callus layer. This reduces the sensitivity of the remaining nerves in the [[Glans penis|glans]] gradually over the years. The study conducted by Sorrells ''et al.''<ref>{{Sorrells etal 2007}}</ref> found a significant reduction of sensitivity to touch for circumcised compared to intact [[penis]]es in adult males. Other studies revealed that circumcised men use condoms significantly less often than intact men, since they further limit the sexual sensitivity (see above).
* Painful tension can occur when there is too little reserve skin left to support a full erection<ref>{{REFjournal
=== Sexual effects ===
Circumcision and frenectomy remove tissues with heightened erogenous sensitivity. Boyle ''et al.'' (2002) wrote, "the genitally intact male has thousands of fine touch receptors and other highly erogenous nerve endings—many of which are lost to circumcision."<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Boyle
|first=Gregory J.