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Despite the known [[Immunological and protective function of the foreskin| immunological functions]] of the [[foreskin]], certain promoters of male circumcision attempted to link HIV infection to lack of [[circumcision]]. Three randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were carried out in Africa in an attempt to prove their hypothesis. Boyle & Hill (2011) however studied their reports and found disabling methodological and statistical errors that invalidated their purported findings.<ref name="boyle-hill2011">{{BoyleGJ HillG 2011}}</ref>
[[Robert S. Van Howe |Van Howe]] & [[Gregory J. Boyle|Boyle ]] (2018) further elaborated on these findings and suggested possible coordination between the RCTs and hinted at the possibility of fraud.<ref name= "vanhowe2018">{{REFjournal
|last=Van Howe
|first=Robert S.