Changes

}}</ref> <ref name="taddio1997">{{REFjournal

John Rhinehart, M. D.{{MD}}, (1999) a clinical psychiatrist, reported finding numerous cases of PTSD in his adult male patients pursuant to infant circumcision.<ref>{{REFjournal

}}</ref> <ref name="vanhowe2008" />

<i>Numerous lines of evidence suggest that even in the human [[fetus]], pain pathways as well as cortical and subcortical centers necessary for pain perception are well developed late in gestation, and the neurochemical systems now known to be associated with pain transmission and modulation are intact and functional. Physiologic responses to painful stimuli have been well documented in neonates of various gestational ages and are reflected in hormonal, metabolic, and cardiorespiratory changes similar to but greater than those observed in adult subjects. Other responses in newborn infants are suggestive of integrated emotional and behavioral responses to pain and are retained in memory long enough to modify subsequent behavior patterns.</i><ref name="anand1987" /> <ref name="vanhowe2008"/>

Although by 1989 it was totally clear that infants can feel intense pain, the 1989 American Academy of Pediatrics Circumcision Task Force, under the leadership of the infamous [[Edgar J. Schoen]], M. D.{{MD}}, declined to recommend the use of analgesics for non-therapeutic neonatal circumcision, thereby condemning million of newborn baby boys to a painful, stressful circumcision.<ref>{{REFjournal

}}</ref> Ring block is considered the most effective analgesic procedure for neonatal non-therapeutic circumcision. Infant boys feel less pain and suffer less trauma than with the other two pain reduction procedures.<ref name="lander1997" /> <ref name="stang1997">{{REFjournal

The [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] convened a new task force on circumcision under the chair of Carole M. Lannon, M. D{{MD}}. That task force reversed the position previously taken under [[Edgar J. Schoen]]. It clearly stated that non-therapeutic infant circumcision is "not essential to the child’s current well-being." It provided an extensive discussion of procedural analgesia and said, quite strongly, that, if a circumcision is done, procedural analgesia should be provided.<ref name="aap1999">{{REFjournal

}}</ref> <ref name="racp2010">{{REFdocument

}}</ref> <ref>{{REFdocument

Nevertheless, some non-therapeutic circumcisions of boys will continue to be performed for religious reasons, ethnic reasons, and the[[Adamant father syndrome| emotional needs of parents]]. When a circumcision is to be performed, the standard of care requires that analgesia be provided to reduce the extreme level of pain and trauma.<ref name="poland1987" /> <ref name="cps1996" /> <ref name="lander1997" /> <ref name="aap1999" /> (Total anesthesia cannot be used with infants.)