Changes

|url=httphttps://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/freeman1/

|url=httphttps://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/laymon1/

|url=httphttps://web.archive.org/web/20050407182428/http://www.vulvarpain.icomm.ca/parsad.html

|url=httphttps://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/finkbeiner2003/

}}</ref> First described in Germany by Stühmer in 1928,<ref name="stühmer">{{REFjournal |last=Stühmer |init=A. |title=Balanitis xerotica obiterans und ihre Beziehungen zur 'Kraurosis glandi et praeputii penis' |url=https://www.springerlink. ''com/content/k2895227m2410756/ |journal=Arch Dermatol Syph'' ( |location=Berlin) |date=1928; |volume=156: |page=613. |DOI: =10.1007/BF01828558 ([http://www.springerlink.com/content/k2895227m2410756/ Abstract])}}</ref> it is a [[skin]] disease of unknown etiology<ref name="freeman" /> and occurs in both males and females. BXO is the name traditionally used when the disease afflicts the male sexual organs, while LSA is the name applied when the disease appears in a female or a male in other than the genital organs. An older name for BXO is ''kraurosis glandii et praeputii penis''.<ref name="freeman" /><ref name="McKay">{{REFjournal |last=McKay |init=DL Jr, |last2=Fuqua |init2=F, |last3=Weinberg |init3=AG. [http |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/mckay1/ |title=Balanitis xerotica obliterans in children]. '' |journal=J Urol'' |date=1975; |volume=114( |issue=5): |pages=773-5.}}</ref>

Affecting only 6 in 1000 males (0.6%), BXO is a rare disease which can affect males at any age.<ref name="parsad" /> As rare as it may be, BXO is a relatively serious disease. It can cause urethral stricture and retention of [[urine]].<ref name="freeman" /> Malignant tumors have been reported to develop from BXO, albeit very rarely.<ref name="freeman" /><ref name="shankar">{{REFjournal |last=Shankar |init=KR, |last2=Rickwood |init2=AM. [http |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/shankar1/ |title=The incidence of phimosis in boys]. '' |journal=BJU Int'' |date=1999; |volume=84( |issue=1): |pages=101-2.}}</ref> Meffert ''et al''. (1995) provide a recent review of the literature.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Meffert |init=JJ, |last2=Davis |init2=BM, |last3=Grimwood |init3=RE. [http |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/meffert1/ |title=Lichen Sclerosus]. '' |journal=J Am Acad Dermatol'' |date=1995; |volume=32( |issue=3): |pages=393-416.}}</ref> A person with BXO or suspected BXO should be under the care of a medical doctor.

Freeman & Laymon (1941) provide a detailed classic description of the disease:<ref name="freeman" /> BXO is usually distinguished by a ring of hardened tissue with a whitish color at the tip of the [[foreskin]]. The hardening of the tissue prevents [[retraction of the foreskin]].<ref name="shankar" /> Immunophenotyping may be useful in differential diagnosis.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Hinchliffe |init=SA, |last2=Ciftci |init2=AO, |last3=Khine |init3=MM, ''et al.'' [http |etal=yes |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/hinchliffe1/ |title=Composition of the inflammatory infiltrate in pediatric penile lichen sclerosus et atrophicus (balanitis xerotica obliterans): a prospective, comparative immunophenotyping study]. '' |journal=Pediatr Pathol'' |date=1994; |volume=14( |issue=2): |pages=223-33.}}</ref> Histologic examination of cutaneous biopsy gives a definite diagnosis.<ref name="pasieczny">{{REFjournal |last=Pasieczny |init=TAH. [http |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/pasieczny1/ |title=The treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans with testosterone propionate ointment]. '' |journal=Acta Derm Venerol'' ( |location=Stockholm) |date=1977; |volume=57: |pages=275-7.}}</ref><ref name="rickwood-boys">{{REFjournal |last=Rickwood |init=AMK, |last2=Hemalatha |init2=V, |last3=Batcup |init3=G, |last4=Spitz |init4=L. [http |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/rickwood/ |title=Phimosis in Boys]. '' |journal=Brit J Urol'' |date=1980; |volume=52: |pages=147-150.50}}</ref><ref name="shankar" /><ref name="depasquale">{{REFjournal |last=Depasquale |init=I, |last2=Park |init2=AJ, |last3=Bracka |init3=A. [http |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/depasquale1/ |title=The treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans]. '' |journal=BJU Int'' |date=2000; |volume=86( |issue=4): |pages=459-65.}}</ref> The presence of BXO must be confirmed in order to consider the choice of treatment modality. If the biopsy rules out BXO as a cause of non-retractile foreskin, then conservative treatment is most likely possible. If, on the other hand, a biopsy confirms the presence of BXO, the choice of treatment modality is more difficult.

In the past, the traditional treatment of BXO has been radical [[circumcision]].<ref name="meuli">{{REFjournal |last=Meuli |init=M, |last2=Briner |init2=J, |last3=Hanimann |init3=B, |last4=Sacher |init4=P. [http |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/meuli/ |title=Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus causing phimosis in boys: a prospective study with 5-year followup after complete circumcision]. '' |journal=J Urol'' |date=1994: |volume=152( |issue=3): |pages=987-9.}}</ref> However, many conservative treatment options are now available.

Conventional medical wisdom has stated that BXO is an absolute indication for circumcision,<ref name="meuli" /> however, this treatment modality dates from a time when the prepuce was considered to have no value for the individual. In more recent times, this is no longer the case, as the function and value of the prepuce are now being recognized, and males may wish for treatment that preserves the integrity of their organs; protection of the individual from unnecessarily radical surgery is always a doctor's prerogative. Fortunately, thanks to advances in modern medicine, researchers have reported some success with conservative therapies for BXO that spare the patient from surgery and preserve the prepuce.

Corticosteroids have been used with varying degrees of success.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Catterall |init=RD, |last2=Oakes |init2=JK. |title=Treatment of balanitis xerotica obiterans with hydrocortisone injections. '' |journal=Br J Ven Dis'' |date=1962; |volume=38: |page=75.}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Poynter |init=JH. |last2=Levy |init2=J. [ |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1464-410X.2000.00772.x |title=Balanitis xerotica obliterans: effective treatment with topical and sublesional corticosteroids]. '' |journal=Br J Urol'' |date=1967; |volume=39( |issue=4): |pages=420-5.}}</ref> Pasieczny (1977) reports successful treatment with topical testosterone propionate ointment.<ref name="pasieczny" /><ref name="rickwood-medical">{{REFjournal |last=Rickwood |init=AMK. [ |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1045.x |title=Medical indications for circumcision]. '' |journal=BJU Int'' |date=1999: |volume=83 |issue=Suppl 1, |pages=45-51.}}</ref> Several authorities report success with clobetasol propionate.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Jørgensen |init=ET, |last2=Svensson |init2=Å. [http |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/jorgensen/ |title=The treatment of phimosis in boys, with a potent topical steroid (clobetasol propionate 0,05%) cream]. '' |journal=Acta Dermato-Venereologica'' ( |location=Stockholm) |date=1993; |volume=73( |issue=1): |pages=55-56.6}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Jorgensen |init=ET, |last2=Svensson |init2=A. [http |url=https://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/313/7058/692 |title=Problems with the penis and prepuce in children: Lichen sclerosus should be treated with corticosteroids to reduce need for surgery]. '' |journal=BMJ'' |date=1996; |volume=313: |page=692. (link to www.bmj.com)}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Dahlman-Ghozlan |init=K, |last2=Hedblad |init2=MA, |last3=von Krogh |init3=G. [http |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/dahlman-ghozlan1/ |title=Penile lichen sclerosus et atrophicus treated with clobetasol dipropionate 0.05% cream: a retrospective clinical and histopathological study]. '' |journal=J Am Acad Dermatol'' |date=1999; |volume=40( |issue=3): |pages=451-7.}}</ref><ref name="neuhaus">{{REFjournal |last=Neuhaus |init=IM, |last2=Skidmore |init2=RA. [http |url=https://www.familypractice.com/references/referencesframe.htm?main=/journal/1999/v12.n06/1206.06/art-1206.06.htm |title=Balanitis xerotica obliterans and its differential diagnosis]. '' |journal=J Am Board Fam Pract'' |date=1999; |volume=12( |issue=6): |pages=473-476.6}}</ref> Shelley and colleagues (1999) report successful treatment with antibiotics.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Shelley, |init=WB, |last2=Shelley |init2=ED, |last3=Gruenwald |init3=MA, ''et al.'' [http |etal=yes |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/shelley1/ |title=Long-term antibiotic therapy for balanitis xerotica obliterans]. '' |journal=J Am Acad Dermatol'' |date=1999; |volume=40: |pages=69-72.}}</ref> While Depasquale and colleagues (2000) recommend radical circumcision, they also suggest mometasone or clobetasol cream as a non-surgical alternative.<ref name="depasquale" /> Dewan (2001) reports that BXO is successfully treated with topical steroid ointment during the early stages.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Kiss |init=A, |last2=Csontai |init2=A, |last3=Pirot L, ''et al.'' [http |etal=yes |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/kiss1/ |title=The response of balanitis xerotica obliterans to local steroid application compared with placebo in children]. '' |journal=J Urol'' |date=2001; |volume=165( |issue=1): |pages=219-20.}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Neill |init=SM, |last2=Tatnall |init2=FM, |last3=Cox |init3=NH. [http |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/neill2002/ |title=Guidelines for the management of lichen sclerosus]. '' |journal=Br J Dermatol'' |date=2002; |volume=147: |pages=640-9.}}</ref> Finkbeiner (2003) reports that tacrolimus ointment is effective for treatment of LSA in women.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Finkbeiner |init=AE. [http |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/finkbeiner2003/ |title=Balanitis xerotica obliterans: a form of lichen sclerosus]. '' |journal=South Med J'' |date=2003; |volume=96( |issue=1): |pages=7-8.}}</ref> Clinical experience has shown it to be effective against BXO in boys. Ebert ''et al''. (2007) report safety and good results with the use with Tacrolimus ointment.<ref name="ebert">{{REFjournal |last=Ebert |init=AK, |last2=Vogt |init2=T, |last3=Rösch |init3=WH. ([http |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/ebert2007/ |title=Topical therapy of balanitis xerotica obliterans in childhood: Long-term clinical results and an overview.]) '' |journal=Urologe A.'' |date=2007; |volume=46( |issue=12): |pages=1682-6.}}</ref>

Rosemberg ''et al''. (1982) Carbon dioxide (CO2) laser surgery has been used with reported good results.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Rosemberg |init=SK, |last2=Jacobs |init2=H. [ |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/009042958290615X |title=Continuous wave carbon dioxide treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans]. '' |journal=Urology'' |date=1982; |volume=19( |issue=5): |pages=539-41.}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Ratz |init=JL. [http |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/ratz1/ |title=Carbon dioxide laser treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans]. '' |journal=J Am Acad Dermatol'' |date=1984; |volume=10: |pages=925-28.8}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Rosemberg |init=SK. [http |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/rosemberg1/ |title=Carbon dioxide laser treatment of external genital lesions]. '' |journal=Urology'' |date=1985; |volume=25( |issue=6): |pages=555-8.}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Windahl |init=T, |last2=Hellsten |init2=S. [http |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/windahl1/ |title=Carbon dioxide laser treatment of lichen sclerosus et atrophicus]. '' |journal=J Urol'' |date=1993; |volume=150: |pages=868-70.}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Kartamaa |init=M, |last2=Reitamo |init2=S. [http |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/kartamaa1/ |title=Treatment of lichen sclerosus with carbon dioxide laser vaporization]. '' |journal=Br J Dermatol'' |date=1997; |volume=136: |pages=356-9.}}</ref> A carbon dioxide laser is used to vaporize the lesions. [[Circumcision]] is the conventional radical surgical treatment but sacrifices the [[foreskin|prepuce]].<ref name="rickwood-boys" /><ref name="shankar">{{REFjournal |last=Shankar |init=KR, |last2=Rickwood |init2=AM. [http |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/shankar1/ |title=The incidence of phimosis in boys]. '' |journal=BJU Int'' |date=1999; |volume=84( |issue=1): |pages=101-2.}}</ref><ref name="neuhaus" /><ref name="rickwood-medical" /><ref name="depasquale" />

There still seems to a wide range of opinion on the best treatment modalities for BXO. The cause is still unknown, although Shelley ''et al''. (1999) hypothesize spirochete infection.<ref name="neuhaus" /> More research is needed. Now, however, there is a good possibility of successful treatment without radical circumcision.<ref>{{REFjournal

|url=httphttps://bmj.com/cgi/eletters/321/7264/792#10014