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* First, it has to be noted that any form of protection against these diseases only affects people who are sexually active. Circumcision in childhood cannot be justified on these grounds, since any assumed protective effect will not occur before the boy is already old enough to decide about circumcision for himself.
* As mentioned above, the [[foreskin]] keeps the [[Glans penis|glans]] moist. This subpreputial moisture contains, among other substances, the enzyme lysozyme, which breaks up the cell wall of bacteria, thereby providing a natural antibacterial screen. This explains the results of several studies, such as Laumann et.al.<ref>Laumann EO, Masi CM, Zuckerman EW. Circumcision in the United States: prevalence, prophylactic effects, and sexual practice. JAMA 1997;277:1052-7.</ref>, which found a higher rate of infection with bacterial venereal diseases in circumcised than in intact men.
* The studies by Fleiss et.al.<ref>Fleiss PM, Hodges FM, Van Howe RS. Immunological functions of the human prepuce. Sex Transm Inf 1998;74:364-7.</ref> support this. According to the [[AAP]], the general sexual behaviour of the male - such as frequent change in partners and the use of condoms - has a much higher impact on sexually transmitted diseases then the circumcision status.<ref>Task Force on Circumcision. Circumcision policy statement. Pediatrics 1999;103(3):686-93.</ref>
* HIV / AIDS: in the recent past, the argument that circumcision could help to contain the spread of HIV has been stated numerous times.
*:First, two notes: for one, the use of condoms is still by far the most effective protection against an infection. During intercourse with that preventive measure, circumcision status does not make a difference.
* Intolerance or allergic reactions to the narcotics used.
* Especially in newborns, where the bodily pain reduction mechanisms are not yet fully developed, local anaesthesia is often insufficient for the operation. Even in conjunction with regional anaesthesia of the dorsal nerve of the [[penis]], the rate of failure to provide sufficient anaesthetic even for experienced anaesthetists is still 5-10%. The general anaesthesia that would be needed for newborns, however, poses significant risks for the child, and, therefore, is only likely to be used in emergencies. A surgical operation without proper pain control can lead to the development of a specific pain memory<ref>Prof. Dr. med. Boris Zernikow http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/vorab/experte-warnt-rituelle-beschneidung-veraendert-das-gehirn-der-kinder-a-849534.html</ref>. In unsedated and partially sedated infants increased secretion of the stress hormone cortisol could be observed for months after the operation. Overall, their pain threshold was lower and the risk of chronic pain increased. Regardless of these findings, infant circumcisions with insufficient or no anaesthetic are still common practice<ref>Garry T. Circumcision: a survey of fees and practices. OBG Management 1994. (October): 34-6.</ref><ref>Howard CR, Howard FM, Garfunkel LC, de Blieck EA, Weitzman M. Neonatal circumcision and pain relief: current training practices. Pediatrics 1998; 101:423-428.</ref><ref>Stang HJ, Snellman LW. Circumcision practice patterns in the United States. Pediatrics 1998; 101: e5. Link to [[AAP ]] website</ref>. During procedures which take several minutes, babies tend to fall into a state of stupor, which in the past was falsely interpreted as peaceful sleep, nurturing the belief that babies felt no pain. Measurements taken in those cases revealed a typically 3- to 4-fold increase in cortisol levels, which equals a state of severe shock.<ref>Gunnar MR, Fisch RO, Korsvik S, Donhowe JM. The effects of circumcision on serum cortisol and behavior. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1981; 6(3):269-75.</ref>
* Postoperative wound pain, in the case of children's circumcisions conceivably worsened by the forceful breaking of the preputial adhesions.
* Postoperative bleeding of the wound. This can have severe consequences especially for very young infants, if they are not treated promptly. Their blood volume is only about 85 ml per kilogram of body weight, and even moderate blood loss can lead to hypovolaemia, hypovolaemic shock and even death.<ref>Smart J, Nolan T. (Editors). Paediatric Handbook, Sixth Edition. Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Science Asia, 2000: p. 82</ref><ref>Wetli CV. Case 93-1711. Autopsy of Demetrius Manker. Miami: Dade County Medical Examiner Department, June 23, 1993.</ref><ref>Hiss J, Horowitz A, Kahana T. Fatal haemorrhage following male ritual circumcision. J Clin Forensic Med 2000;7:32-4.</ref><ref>Newell TEC. Judgement of inquiry into the death of McWillis, Ryleigh Roman Bryan. Burnaby, B.C.: B.C. Coroner's Service, Monday, 19 January 2004</ref>
==== USA ====
The USA have by far the highest rate of circumcision among the western nations. In many maternity wards the routine circumcision of newborn boys is common. The US paediatric society, [[AAP]], is the only major medical society in the world still advocating the non-therapeutic circumcision of newborns and children.
In the autumn of 2010, Californian intactivists called for a ban of routine infant circumcision and thereby sparked a nation-wide discussion of the topic.