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In the majority of adult men, the [[foreskin]] normally retracts to reveal the head of the penis. In newborns, it is common for the foreskin to be fused to the head of the penis, thus rendering it non-retractable. The foreskin usually separates from the glans and becomes retractable with age. There is much uncertainty among health care workers about when the foreskin of a boy should become retractable.<ref>{{REFjournal

}}</ref> The mistaken belief that the foreskin was supposed to be retractable at the time of birth of the infant has led to a characterization of the genitalia of most infant males as defective at birth. This has led to many false diagnoses of [[phimosis]], followed by unnecessary [[circumcision]], when, in fact, the foreskin is developmentally normal.

The first data on development of retractile foreskin were provided in 1949 by the famous British paediatrician, [[Douglas Gairdner]].<ref name="Gairdner">{{REFjournal

}}</ref> His data have been incorporated into many textbooks and is still being repeated in the medical literature today. [[Douglas Gairdner|Gairdner]] said that 80 percent of boys should have a retractable foreskin by the age of two years, and 90 percent of boys should have a retractable prepuce by the age of three years.<ref name="Gairdner"/>

Unfortunately, [[Douglas Gairdner|Gairdner]]’s data are inaccurate,<ref name="Wright">{{REFjournal

}}</ref><ref name="Hill">{{REFjournal

}}</ref> so most healthcare providers have been taught inaccurate data.<ref name="Hill"/> Retractability usually occurs much later than previously believed.<ref name="Wright"/> This page provides accurate data, derived from newer and better studies, for healthcare providers.

Kayaba et al. (1996) reported that before six months of age, no boy had a retractable prepuce; 16.5 percent of boys aged 3-4 had a fully retractable prepuce.<ref>{{REFjournal

}}</ref> Imamura (1997) examined 4521 infants and young boys. He re-ported that the foreskin is retractile in 3 percent of infants aged one to three months, 19.9 percent of those aged ten to twelve months, and 38.4 percent of three-year-old boys.<ref>{{REFjournal

}}</ref> Ishikawa & Kawakita (2004) reported no retractability at age one, (but increasing to 77 percent at age 11-15).<ref>{{REFjournal

}}</ref> Non-retractile foreskin is the more common condition in this age group. Compare Gairdner’s data.

Jakob Øster, a Danish physician who conducted school examinations, reported his findings on the examination of school-boys in Denmark, where circumcision is rare.<ref name="Øster">{{REFjournal

}}</ref> Øster (1968) found that the incidence of fusion of the foreskin with the glans penis steadily declines with increasing age and foreskin retractability increases with age.<ref name="Øster"/> Kayaba et al. (1996) also investigated the development of foreskin retraction in boys from age 0 to age 15.5 Kayaba et al. also reported increasing retractability with increasing age. Kayaba et al. reported that about only 42 percent of boys aged 8-10 have fully retractile foreskin, but the percentage increases to 62.9 percent in boys aged 11-15.5 Imamura (1997) reported that 77 percent of boys aged 11-15 had retractile foreskin.6 Thorvaldsen & Meyhoff (2005) conducted a survey of 4000 young men in Denmark.9 They report that the mean age of first foreskin retraction is 10.4 years in Denmark.<ref name="Thorvaldsen">{{REFjournal

}}</ref> Non-retractile foreskin is the more common condition until about 10-11 years of age.

Boys usually are born with a non-retractile foreskin. The foreskin gradually becomes retractable over a variable period of time ranging from birth to 18 years or more.<ref name="Øster"/><ref name="Thorvaldsen"/> There is no “right” age for the foreskin to become retractable. Non-retractile foreskin does not threaten health in childhood and no intervention is necessary. Many boys only develop a retractable foreskin after puberty. Education of concerned parents usually is the only action required.<ref>{{REFjournal

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* Manual stretching<ref>{{REFjournal

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* Application of topical steroid ointment<ref>{{REFjournal

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Male circumcision is outmoded as a treatment for non-retractile foreskin, but it is still recommended by many urologists because of lack of adequate information, and perhaps because of the fees associated with circumcision. Nevertheless, circumcision should be avoided because of pain, trauma, cost,<ref name="Van Howe">{{REFjournal

}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal

}}</ref>complications,<ref name="Van Howe"/> difficult recovery, permanent injury to the appearance of the penis, loss of pleasurable erogenous sensation,<ref>{{REFjournal

}}</ref> and impairment of erectile and ejaculatory functions.<ref>{{REFjournal

}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal

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