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== American Academy of Pediatrics policy changes ==
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) has issued two statements which, when read together, constitute a substantial change in AAP policy toward the prevention of UTI in infants. First, in 1997, the AAP Workgroup on Breastfeeding recommended breastfeeding as highly beneficial in preventing a wide range of infections including UTI.<ref>AAP Workgroup on Breastfeeding. [http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics%3b100/6/1035 Breastfeeding and the use of human milk]. ''Pediatrics'' 1997;100(6)1035-1039.</ref> Second, in 1999, The 1999 AAP Task Force on Circumcision abandoned the previous stance of the 1989 Task Force on Circumcision that circumcision may provide protection against UTI.<ref>AAP Task Force on Circumcision. [http://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aap1999/ Circumcision Policy Statement]. ''Pediatrics'' 1999;103(3):686-693.</ref> The 1999 Task Force found that the bulk of the UTI studies were so methodologically flawed—by failing to control for confounding factors-such as breastfeeding—that no meaningful conclusions could be drawn from them. The 1999 AAP Task Force on Circumcision could not, therefore, recommend circumcision to reduce incidence of UTI (or any other disease).<ref>AAP Task Force on Circumcision. [http://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aap1999/ Circumcision Policy Statement]. ''Pediatrics'' 1999;103(3):686-693.</ref>
The 1999 AAP Task Force on Circumcision did, however, declare that breastfeeding produces a three fold reduction in UTI in infants. Two separate panels of the AAP, the Work Group on Breastfeeding and the 1999 Task Force on Circumcision, now recommend breastfeeding to reduce incidence of UTI.<ref>AAP Workgroup on Breastfeeding. [http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics%3b100/6/1035 Breastfeeding and the use of human milk]. ''Pediatrics'' 1997;100(6)1035-1039.</ref><ref>AAP Task Force on Circumcision. [http://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aap1999/ Circumcision Policy Statement]. ''Pediatrics'' 1999;103(3):686-693.</ref>
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As circumcision necessitates [[forced retraction]] of the foreskin, additionally creating an open wound that is vulnerable to additional infection, parents are advised against circumcision.<ref>Outerbridge EW. [http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/outerbridge/ Decreasing the risk of urinary tract infections]. (Letter). ''Paediatr Child Health'' 1998; 3(1):19.</ref> These functions suggest that the intact prepuce may offer protection against UTI if undisturbed. The [[foreskin]] provides two physical lines of defense in the intact male child, which are removed in circumcision: the preputial sphincter, which closes when a boy is not urinating, and a protected meatus (urinary opening), which is often inflamed and open in circumcised boys.<ref>Cunningham N. [http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/cunningham/ Circumcision and urinary tract infections]. (letter) ''Pediatrics'' 1986; 77(2):267.</ref> Recently, Fleiss ''et al''. (1998) reviewed the immunological functions of the prepuce. In addition, the sub-preputial moisture contains lysosyme, which has an anti-bacterial action.<ref>Fleiss PM, Hodges FM, Van Howe RS. [http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/STD/fleiss3/ Immunological functions of the human prepuce]. ''Sex Trans Inf'' 1998: 364-367</ref> Oligosaccharides excreted in the urine of breastfed babies prevent adhesion of pathogens to uroepithelial tissue.<ref>Mårild S. [http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/UTI/marild/ Breastfeeding and Urinary Tract Infections]. ''Lancet'' 1990;336:942.</ref>
== The UTI scare ==
=== The AAP lays the UTI/circumcision myth to rest ===
== American Academy of Pediatrics policy changes ==
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) formed a task force under the chairmanship of the late [[Edgar J. Schoen]] to reconsider its 1975 policy statement. This task force issued a statement in 1989 which cited the UTI papers of [[Thomas E. Wiswell]] as a reason that one might circumcise a child., but it included a disclaimer. The report stated:
<blockquote>
It should be noted that these studies in army hospitals are retrospective in design and may have methodologic flaws. For example, they do not include all boys born in any single cohort or those treated as outpatients, so the study population may have been influenced by selection bias.<ref>Task Force on Circumcision. Report of the Task Force of Circumcision ''Pediatrics'' 1989;84(4):388-91.</ref>
</blockquote>
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) has issued two statements which, when read together, constitute a substantial change in AAP policy toward the prevention of UTI in infants. First, in 1997, the AAP Workgroup on Breastfeeding recommended breastfeeding as highly beneficial in preventing a wide range of infections including UTI.<ref>AAP Workgroup on Breastfeeding. [http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics%3b100/6/1035 Breastfeeding and the use of human milk]. ''Pediatrics'' 1997;100(6)1035-1039.</ref> Second, in 1999, The 1999 AAP Task Force on Circumcision abandoned the previous stance of the 1989 Task Force on Circumcision that circumcision may provide protection against UTI.<ref>AAP Task Force on Circumcision. [http://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aap1999/ Circumcision Policy Statement]. ''Pediatrics'' 1999;103(3):686-693.</ref> The 1999 Task Force found that the bulk of the UTI studies were so methodologically flawed—by failing to control for confounding factors-such as breastfeeding—that no meaningful conclusions could be drawn from them. The 1999 AAP Task Force on Circumcision could not, therefore, recommend circumcision to reduce incidence of UTI (or any other disease).<ref>AAP Task Force on Circumcision. [http://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aap1999/ Circumcision Policy Statement]. ''Pediatrics'' 1999;103(3):686-693.</ref>
The 1999 AAP Task Force on Circumcision did, however, declare that breastfeeding produces a three fold reduction in UTI in infants. Two separate panels of the AAP, the Work Group on Breastfeeding and the 1999 Task Force on Circumcision, now recommend breastfeeding to reduce incidence of UTI.<ref>AAP Workgroup on Breastfeeding. [http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics%3b100/6/1035 Breastfeeding and the use of human milk]. ''Pediatrics'' 1997;100(6)1035-1039.</ref><ref>AAP Task Force on Circumcision. [http://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aap1999/ Circumcision Policy Statement]. ''Pediatrics'' 1999;103(3):686-693.</ref>
In their 1989 report, the AAP acknowledeged that ''"these studies in army hospitals are retrospective in design and may have methodologic flaws. For example, they do not include all boys born in any single cohort or those treated as outpatients, so the study population may have been influenced by selection bias."'' Furthermore, the babies in the studies were all hospitalized due to sickness, and so do not represent infants in the general population.