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''The following text is taken from amputation of the [[Circumpendiumforeskin]]is a very old ritual, whose exact origin cannot be verified beyond doubt. Medical historians assume that circumcision already served in ancient history as a way to control the sexuality of slaves and members of the lower classes without compromising their ability to reproduce. In religious history circumcision may be seen as a substitute for human sacrifice. In prehistoric times it was not uncommon to placate the gods with human sacrifice. Castration of slaves or conquered enemies was common as well. Following religious changes this sacrifice was altered, and only a part of the very organ responsible for the creation of new life was sacrificed.''

[[Image:Circumcision Sakkara 3.jpg|200px|right]] For the Aborigines, the Australian natives, the tradition of circumcision is said to go back to 10,000 BC. On the African continent, the first circumcisions are assumed to have emerged around 6000 BC. From ancient Egypt hints of various forms of circumcision date back to the time around 3000-2000 BC. The oldest known depiction<ref>{{REFweb |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Circumcision_Sakkara_3.jpg |title= NonFile:Circumcision Sakkara 3.jpg |accessdate=2019-medical indications for circumcision ==10-12}}</ref> is an Egyptian tomb relief from the 6th dynasty, approximately 2300-2000 BC. It is not known precisely who was circumcised and why in those times.

Apart In many cultures circumcision during puberty serves as a rite of passage, bringing adolescents into the community. As with other painful or humiliating initiation rites, proof of courage and mastering of critical situations are the key motivations. From some African tribes it is also known that the amputation of the [[foreskin]] is seen as the removal of an inborn piece of femininity from the medical indication of pathological phimosisboys, there also are other reasons for circumcisionthus making them men.

The visual appearance of the [[penis]] {{Citation |Text=10 This is changed radically my covenant with you and your descendants after you, the covenant you are to keep: Every male among you shall be circumcised. 11 You are to undergo circumcision, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and you. In this case12 For the generations to come every male among you who is eight days old must be circumcised, personal taste is decisive whether an intact including those born in your household or bought with money from a cut [[penis]] is more appealingforeigner—those who are not your offspring. Since a circumcision cannot 13 Whether born in your household or bought with your money, they must be undone, it circumcised. My covenant in your flesh is essential to be fully informed about the risks and possible later complications before embarking on an aesthetically motivated circumcisioneverlasting covenant. 14 Any uncircumcised male, to decide whether who has not been circumcised in the appearance flesh, will justify such bodily modificationbe cut off from his people; he has broken my covenant.” |Author=Bible |Source=Gen 17, 10-14, NIV}}

Since this modification According to the anthropologist and its possible late effects will be sociologist Nissan Rubin, the Jewish form of circumcision, called brit mila, during the first two millennia did not include the later customary periah, namely the lifelong burden complete scraping of the person who undertakes an aesthetically motivated circumcision inner [[foreskin]] from the [[Glans penis|glans]]. This was only added around 135 AD, to make it impossible to suit his personal preferencesrestore the [[foreskin]] by stretching, which became popular in the wake of Hellenic influence. While originally only the tip of the [[foreskin]] was cut off, periah removes the entire [[foreskin]]. In the Greek society of the day, a valid decision to proceed can only be made denuded [[Glans penis|glans]] was considered obscene and risible. In ultra-orthodox communities, circumcision is followed by the person [[mohel]], the ritual circumciser, sucking blood from the wound with his mouth. This practice is highly controversial, as it can result in an infection with herpes simplex type 1. In New York City, between 2000 and 2011 eleven children were infected with herpes, 10 of whom had to be circumcised himselftreated in hospital. Two of them suffered permanent brain damage, two others died. In the 12th century, once he has reached the Jewish philosopher and doctor Maimonides pointed out that circumcision was necessary age , as it diminished sexual desires and level of maturity reduced the pleasure to make that decision. This should normally be the case when adulthood is reacheda degree just sufficient for mere reproduction.

In Islam, circumcision is also religiously founded, even though there is no mention of it in the Koran itself. According to tradition, the Prophet Mohammed was born without a [[foreskin]]. It should be noted is seen as a sign of prophets that every circumcision operation leaves they are born without a life-long [[circumcision scarforeskin]] that encircles already. It is considered an honour to "resemble the shaft example of the penisProphet", meaning to be circumcised. In Islam, unlike Judaism, there is no specific age at which the circumcision should be performed. Most circumcisions take place at ages between 6 and 10 years, but the range goes from birth to adulthood.

In the United States{{Citation |Text=A remedy which is almost always successful in small boys is circumcision, payment for non-therapeutic circumcision especially when there is made by most any degree of [[third-party payment| third-party payersphimosis]] . The operation should be performed by a surgeon without questionadministering an anaesthetic, as the brief pain attending the operation will have a salutary effect upon the mind, especially if it be connected with the idea of punishment, as it may well be in some cases. Doctors frequently perform medically-unnecessaryIn females, non-therapeutic circumcision the author has found the application of pure carbolic acid to the clitoris an excellent means of infants allaying the abnormal excitement, and children simply to collect a fee for preventing the surgical operation. The only beneficiary recurrence of such surgery the practice in those whose will-power has become so weakened that the patient is the unable to exercise entire self-control. |Author=[[Financial IncentiveJohn Harvey Kellogg]] |Source= |ref=<ref>{{REFbook | bank account url=https://archive.org/details/plainfaorold00kell/page/290 |chapter=Treatment for Self-abuse and Its Effects |title=Plain Facts for Old and Young |location=Burlington, Iowa |publisher=F. Segner & Co. |year=1888 |pages=107}}</ref>}}Following the discovery of bacteria as a cause of many diseases – such as tuberculosis – the medical doctor]]search began for other illnesses that could be prevented by circumcision.

=== Moral reasons === With the [[foreskin]], circumcision removes approximately 70% of the sensitive tissue of the [[penis]], lowering the potential for sexual stimulation accordingly. Due to the loss of around 50% of the entire penile skin, the [[penis]] loses the reserve skin that provides cutaneous mobility in the erect [[penis]] and the [[gliding action]]. In the past, this circumstance was used to make 1920s it harder for boys to masturbate and [[masturbation]] less fun, as [[masturbation]] was viewed as immoral and was assumed to cause a variety of diseasespenile cancer<ref>Abraham L. More on Wolbarst claims that circumcision can be found in the chapter "[[Circumcision#Historical_background|Historical background]]". Today, it is known that [[masturbation]] has no negative health effects, but can contribute positively to the child's sexual development. Sexuality is no longer a taboo nowadays, while [[masturbation]] is considered to be a natural part of human sexuality and is no longer seen as immoral. Therefore, circumcision for moral reasons - which would only affect boys too young to give informed consent - is no longer justifiable nowadaysprevent penile cancer.{{REFjournal |last=Wolbarst |first=== Hygiene reasons ===Abraham L. A common reason stated for circumcision is the assumption of hygienic benefits. This argument has to be viewed in the context of the environment the person in question grows up in. It is commonly known that bad hygienic circumstances, especially insufficient access to clean drinking water, pose a serious problem. The situation in disaster areas or refugee camps in the so |author-called third world keep reminding us of thatlink=Abraham L.Wolbarst In western industrial nations, however, this problem does not exist, in view of the availability of clean water for daily personal hygiene. If the cleaning of the genitals is performed on |title=Is circumcision a daily basis - and that may be assumed - no pathogens can accumulate under the [[foreskin]]. Cleaning of the [[Glans prophylactic against peniscancer? |glans]] and the area underneath the [[foreskin]] is easy - they are simply washed along with the rest of the body, just like the areas between the toes.journal=Cancer |date=Jul 1926In small boys, where the [[foreskin]] cannot be retracted yet, cleaning is not necessary, since the [[Synechia | membrane]] that fuses the [[foreskin]] to the [[Glans penisvolume=3 |glans]] prevents the accumulation of micro-organisms. The so-called "ballooning", where the [[foreskin]] inflates during urination, is not a serious problem.issue=4 The opening of the [[foreskin]] in small boys is often quite narrow and serves as a one |pages=301-way valve, allowing the urine to flow out, but preventing entry of microbes, for example from a dirty diaper. As long as the child is able to pass water, everything works as nature intended.10 But even in areas where there are poorer hygienic conditions and an insufficient access to medical care}}</ref>, the benefits of easier cleaning of a circumcised [[penis]] are to be viewed with a critical eye. Although even longer periods without personal hygiene will not result in an accumulation of germs under the [[foreskin]], circumcision itself is not without risk of complications. If the operation is carried out without proper sterility, there is a high risk of an infection of the wound. This also applies to the treatment of common complications like post1940 prostate-operative bleeding. The benefit of easier cleaning must be balanced against the risk of promoting serious infections - among others HIV - during the operation. In parts of Africa, several dozen of one tribe's boys die each year and tongue cancer as well as a result of their circumcisionSTDs<ref>Eugene H. === Prophylactic reasons === Some people claim Hand explains that circumcision has prophylactic benefits. Especially in the USA those arguments have persisted for more then a 100 years, with ever changing diseases circumcision is said to protect somehow protects against. At first, these were diseases where [[masturbation]] was believed to be the cause. After bacteria and viruses had been discovered, arguments changed, and one after another miscellaneous venereal diseases were cited. * [[Phimosis]]: as mentioned earlier, true [[phimosis]] is rare and can be treated effectively without surgerytongue cancer. According to a study by Blalock ''et al.'' (2003)<ref>{{REFjournal |title=Circumcision and venereal disease. |last=BlalockHand |first=Eugene H.J. |last2journal=VemulakondaArchives of Dermatology and Syphilology |first2date=V.Sep 1949 |last3volume=Ritchey60 |first3issue=M.L.3 |last4pages=Ribbeck341-346}}</ref>. In the 1950s it was cervical cancer<ref>Abraham Ravich invents the myth that circumcision reduces the risk of women getting cervical cancer. {{REFjournal |first4url=Mhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14853120 |title=Outpatient management Prophylaxis of cancer of [[phimosis]] Following newborn the prostate, penis, and cervix by circumcision |last=Ravich |first=Abraham |last2=Ravich |first2=R.A. |journal=J UrolNew York State Journal of Medicine |date=2003Jun 1951 |volume=16951 |issue=612 |pages=23321519-23341520 |urlpubmedID=http://www.cirp.org/library/complications/blalock1/14853120 |accessdate=2019-1110-0712}}</ref>, 2.9% of those circumcised develop a post-operative [[phimosis]], in which the late 1960s it was neuroses<ref>Morris Fishbein calls for circumcision scar constricts. In intact patients, the rate of [[phimosis]] is only 1% (see also the study by [[Jakob Øster]]). Therefore, circumcision is not a preventive measure for [[phimosis]].* Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs): a vast number of studies has been conducted on the subject of transmission of STDs.* Firstto prevent nervousness and, it has to be noted that any form of protection against these diseases only affects people who are sexually active. Circumcision in childhood cannot be justified on these groundscourse, since any assumed protective effect will not occur before the boy is already old enough to decide about circumcision for himself.* As mentioned above, the [[foreskin]] keeps the [[Glans penis|glansmasturbation]] moist. This subpreputial moisture contains, among other substances, the enzyme lysozyme, which breaks up the cell wall of bacteria, thereby providing a natural antibacterial screen. This explains the results of several studies, such as Laumann ''et al.''<ref>{{REFjournalREFbook |last=LaumannFishbein |first=E.O.Morris |last2chapter=MasiSex hygiene |first2=C.M. |last3title=ZuckermanModern Home Medical Adviser |first3location=E.W. |title=Circumcision in the United States: prevalenceGarden City, prophylactic effects, and sexual practiceNew York |journalpublisher=JAMADoubleday & Co |date=1997 |volume=277 |issueyear=1969 |pages=1052-105790, 119 |url=httphttps://www.cirpopenlibrary.org/libraryworks/general/laumannOL95362W/Modern_home_medical_adviser |accessdate=2019-1110-0612}}</ref>, which found a higher rate of infection with bacterial venereal diseases in circumcised than in intact men.* The studies by Fleiss ''et al.'' (1998the 1970s bladder- and rectal cancer<ref>Abraham Ravich claims that circumcision would prevent bladder cancer and rectal cancer. {{REFjournal |last=FleissRavich |first=P.M.Abraham |last2url=Hodges |first2=Fhttps://www.M. |last3=Van Howe |first3=R.Sdeepdyve.com/lp/wiley/viral-carcinogenesis-in-venereally-susceptible-organs-HCeWmTLmKl |title=Immunological functions of the human prepuceViral carcinogenesis in venereally susceptible organs |journal=Sex Transm InfCancer |date=1998Jun 1971 |volume=7427 |issue=6 |pages=3641493-367 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1758142/pdf/v074p00364.pdf1496 |accessdate=2019-1110-0612 }}</ref> support this. According to the [[AAP]], the general sexual behaviour of the male - such as frequent change and in partners and the use of condoms - has a much higher impact on sexually transmitted diseases then the circumcision status.1980s UTIs<ref>Thomas E. Wiswell claims that circumcision reduces the risk of urinary tract infections. {{REFjournal |last=Task Force on CircumcisionWiswell |first=Thomas E. |author-link=Thomas E. Wiswell |url=https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/75/5/901 |title=Circumcision policy statementDecreased incidence of urinary tract infections in circumcised male infants

|date=1999May 1985 |volume=10375 |issue=35 |pages=686901-693903 |accessdate=2019-10-12}}</ref> and AIDS<ref>Aaron J. Fink claims that circumcision protects against AIDS. {{REFjournal |last=Fink |first=Aaron J. |author-link=Aaron J. Fink |title=A possible explanation for heterosexual male infection with AIDS |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |date=1986-10-30 |volume=31 |issue=18 |pages=1167 |url=https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM198610303151818 |DOI=10.1056/NEJM198610303151818

}}</ref>* HIV / AIDS: followed. Retrospectively, circumcision was always advertised as a cure for whatever disease was in the recent past, public spotlight at the argument time. The sheer mass of studies and publications that circumcision could help to contain were released during those almost 180 years on this topic are the spread of HIV has reason that even arguments that have been stated numerous disproved multiple times, especially regarding infant and child circumcision, tenaciously persist up until today.*:First, two notes: for one, the use An ever-recurring element of condoms initiation rites found in many different cultures is still by far the most effective protection against an infectionfixation upon the genitalia. During intercourse with  It reflects the fascination that preventive measureemerges from the ability to create new life. In most cultures, circumcision status does not make a difference.*:Secondlyfertility is seen as the most precious good, and the assumed protection would only affect healthy men who have intercourse with an infected womanbody parts involved frequently find themselves in the focus of ritual acts. An infected man can infect a women by transmission In many parts of his bodily fluidsthe world, those rites take place when the boy reaches puberty, so that and are meant to symbolize his circumcision status is irrelevanttransition from boy to man. Therefore, The removal of the use male [[foreskin]] is just one of condoms remains vital many phenomena that developed in containing this context. They range from the spread removal of HIV, which the frenulum in return renders circumcision unnecessary* Due boys and men through partial or complete removal of the [[foreskin]] up to the inevitable loss of sensitivity radical operations. Australian Aborigines, as a result of circumcisionmentioned above, there have their [[foreskin]]s removed. It is also the temptation to go without condomsusual that, a few weeks later, young men have their [[penis]]es sliced open, resulting in order not to lose even more sensitivitya partly or completely divided urethra.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Hooykaas Another known, particularly massive, intervention is the stripping of the entire skin off the [[penis]]. In Indonesia, boys have metal or bamboo balls inserted into their [[penis]] shaft or [[Glans penis|first=Cglans]] at the beginning of puberty, which form little "humps". |last2=van der Velde |first2=FFor many cultures it is also common to perform similar rituals on girls.WThis can range from relatively small interventions such as piercing or cutting the clitoral hood, to its complete removal and up to radical removal of clitoral hood, clitoris, inner and outer labia followed by sewing up the vagina. |last3=van der Linden |first3=M.M''The following text is taken from the [[Circumpendium]].'' |etal=yes |title=The importance of ethnicity as a risk factor for STDs and sexual behaviour among heterosexuals |journal=Genitourin Med |dateProphylactic reasons =1991 |volume=67 |issue=5 |pages=378-383 |url=Some people claim that circumcision has prophylactic benefits. Especially in the USA those arguments have persisted for more then a 100 years, with ever changing diseases circumcision is said to protect against. At first, these were diseases where [[masturbation]] was believed to be the cause. After bacteria and viruses had been discovered, arguments changed, and one after another miscellaneous diseases were cited. |accessdate=}}</ref>* [[Phimosis]]: as mentioned earlier, true [[phimosis]] is rare and can be treated effectively without surgery. According to a study by Blalock ''et al.'' (2003)<ref>{{REFjournal |last=MichaelBlalock |first=RH.TJ. |last2=WadsworthVemulakonda |first2=JV. |last3=FeinleibRitchey |first3=JM.L. |etallast4=Ribbeck |first4=yesM. |title=Private sexual behavior, public opinion, and public health policy related to sexually transmitted diseases: a US-British comparisonOutpatient management of [[phimosis]] Following newborn circumcision |journal=Am J Public HealthUrol |date=19982003 |volume=88169 |issue=56 |pages=7492332-7542334 |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/complications/blalock1/ |accessdate=2019-11-07}}</ref>, 2.9% of those circumcised develop a post-operative [[phimosis]], in which the circumcision scar constricts. In intact patients, the rate of [[phimosis]] is only 1% (see also the study by [[Jakob Øster]]). Therefore, circumcision is not a preventive measure for [[phimosis]].* Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs): a vast number of studies has been conducted on the subject of transmission of STDs.* First, it has to be noted that any form of protection against these diseases only affects people who are sexually active. Circumcision in childhood cannot be justified on these grounds, since any assumed protective effect will not occur before the boy is already old enough to decide about circumcision for himself.* As mentioned above, the [[foreskin]] keeps the [[Glans penis|glans]] moist. This subpreputial moisture contains, among other substances, the enzyme lysozyme, which breaks up the cell wall of bacteria, thereby providing a natural antibacterial screen. This explains the results of several studies, such as Laumann ''et al.''<ref>{{REFjournal

}}</ref>, which found a higher rate of infection with bacterial venereal diseases in circumcised than in intact men.* Two The studies that have been published in early 2007by Fleiss ''et al.'' (1998<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Gray, Fleiss |first=P.M. |last2=Hodges |first2=F.M. |last3=Van Howe |first3=R.HS. |title=Immunological functions of the human prepuce |journal=Sex Transm Inf |date=1998 |volume=74 |issue= |pages=364-367 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1758142/pdf/v074p00364.pdf |accessdate=2019-11-06}}</ref> support this. According to the [[AAP]], the general sexual behaviour of the male - such as frequent change in partners and colleaguesthe use of condoms - has a much higher impact on sexually transmitted diseases then the circumcision status.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Task Force on Circumcision

|title=Male Circumcision policy statement |journal=Pediatrics |date=1999 |volume=103 |issue=3 |pages=686-693 |url= |accessdate=}}</ref>* HIV / AIDS: in the recent past, the argument that circumcision could help to contain the spread of HIV has been stated numerous times.*:First, two notes: for one, the use of condoms is still by far the most effective protection against an infection. During intercourse with that preventive measure, circumcision status does not make a difference.*:Secondly, the assumed protection would only affect healthy men who have intercourse with an infected woman. An infected man can infect a women by transmission of his bodily fluids, so that his circumcision status is irrelevant. Therefore, the use of condoms remains vital in containing the spread of HIV prevention , which in men return renders circumcision unnecessary* Due to the inevitable loss of sensitivity as a result of circumcision, there is also the temptation to go without condoms, in Rakai, Uganda: order not to lose even more sensitivity.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Hooykaas |first=C. |last2=van der Velde |first2=F.W. |last3=van der Linden |first3=M.M. |etal=yes |title=The importance of ethnicity as a randomised trialrisk factor for STDs and sexual behaviour among heterosexuals |journal=LancetGenitourin Med |date=20071991 |volume=36967 |issue=5 |pages=657378-666383

|last=[[Robert C. Bailey|Bailey, R.C.]] and colleaguesMichael |first= |title=Male circumcision for HIV prevention in men in Rakai, Uganda: a randomised trial |journal=Lancet |date=2007 |volume=369 |issue= |pages=643-656 |url= |accessdate=}}</ref>, which investigated the effectiveness of circumcision as a means of reducing the spread of HIV from infected women to heterosexual men in African high risk areas, have been repeatedly subjected to strong criticism. Both studies were ended prematurely, which distorted the results. The men who had been circumcised for the study had to stay sexually inactive during the wound healing, which gave the intact control group more relative opportunity to become infected. The fact that the USA has both the highest rate of circumcised males in the western world, as well as the highest HIV infection rate, makes the studies look dubiousR. Besides that, several other studies concluded that circumcision does not have a significant impact on the risk of infection with HIV.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Grosskurth |first=HT. |last2=MoshaWadsworth |first2=FJ. |last3=ToddFeinleib

|title=A community trial of the impact of improved Private sexual behavior, public opinion, and public health policy related to sexually transmitted disease treatment on the HIV epidemic in rural Tanzaniadiseases: 2. Baseline survey resultsa US-British comparison |journal=AIDSAm J Public Health |date=19951998 |volume=988 |issue=85 |pages=927749-934754

|last=BarongoLaumann |first=LE.RO. |last2=BorgdorffMasi |first2=C.M. |last3=Zuckerman |first3=E.W. |last3title=Circumcision in the United States: prevalence, prophylactic effects, and sexual practice |journal=JAMA |date=1997 |volume=277 |issue= |pages=1052-1057 |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/general/laumann/ |accessdate=Mosha2019-11-06}}</ref>* Two studies that have been published in early 2007<ref>{{REFjournal |first3last=FGray, R.FH.and colleagues |etalfirst=yes |title=The epidemiology of Male circumcision for HIV-1 infection prevention in urban areas, roadside settlements and rural villages men in Mwanza RegionRakai, TanzaniaUganda: a randomised trial |journal=AIDSLancet |date=19922007 |volume=6369 |issue=12 |pages=1521657-1528666

}}</ref><ref>{{REFconferenceREFjournal |last=Changedia SM[[Robert C. Bailey|Bailey, Gilada ISR.C.]] and colleagues

|title=Role of male Male circumcision for HIV prevention in HIV transmission insignificant men in conjugal relationship (abstract no. ThPeC7420)Rakai, Uganda: a randomised trial |journal=Lancet |date=2007 |volume=369 |issue= |pages=643-656

}}</ref>, which investigated the effectiveness of circumcision as a means of reducing the spread of HIV from infected women to heterosexual men in African high risk areas, have been repeatedly subjected to strong criticism. Both studies were ended prematurely, which distorted the results. The men who had been circumcised for the study had to stay sexually inactive during the wound healing, which gave the intact control group more relative opportunity to become infected. These African randomized clinical trials have been demonstrated to have very serious methodological and statistical errors that distort the results in favor of circumcision.<refname="boyle-hill2011">{{REFconferenceREFjournal |last=Connolly CA, Shishana O, Simbayi L, Colvin MBoyle |first=Gregory J. |titleauthor-link=HIV and circumcision in South Africa (Abstract No. MoPeC3491) |urllast2=Hill |placefirst2=Bangkok, ThailandGeorge |sourceauthor2-link=Presented at the 15th International AIDS ConferenceGeorge Hill |datefromtitle=2004Sub-07-11Saharan African randomised clinical trials into male circumcision and HIV transmission: Methodological, ethical and legal concerns |journal=J Law Med |datetodate=20042011-07-1612 |accessdatevolume=}}</ref><ref>{{REFconference19 |lastissue=Thomas AG, Bakhireva LN, Brodine SK, Shaffer RA2 |firstpages=316-34 |titleurl=Prevalence of male circumcision and its association with HIV and sexually transmitted infections in a Uhttp://www.Ssalem-news. navy population (Abstract nocom/fms/pdf/2011-12_JLM-Boyle-Hill. TuPeC4861)pdf |urlquote= |placepubmedID=Bangkok, Thailand22320006 |sourcepubmedCID=Presented at the 15th International AIDS Conference |datefromDOI=2004-07-11 |datetoaccessdate=20042019-0711-16 |accessdate=09}}</ref>* Urinary tract infections (UTI): The fact that the USA has both the highest rate of circumcised males in the western world, as well as the highest HIV infection rate, makes the studies look dubious. Besides that, several other studies concluded that circumcision does not have a UTI can be effectively treated significant impact on the risk of infection with antibiotics, this was also proven by studiesHIV.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=McCrackenGrosskurth |first=GH. |last2=Mosha |first2=F. |last3=Todd |first3=J. |etal=yes |title=Options in antimicrobial management A community trial of the impact of urinary tract infections improved sexually transmitted disease treatment on the HIV epidemic in infants and childrenrural Tanzania: 2. Baseline survey results |journal=Pediatr Infect Dis JAIDS |date=19891995 |volume=89

|pages=552927-555934

|last=LarcombeBarongo |first=JL.R. |last2=Borgdorff |first2=M..W. |last3=Mosha |first3=F.F. |etal=yes |title=Urinary tract The epidemiology of HIV-1 infection in childrenurban areas, roadside settlements and rural villages in Mwanza Region, Tanzania |journal=BMJAIDS |date=19991992 |volume=3196 |issue=12 |pages=11731521-11751528

}}</ref>. A Swedish study <ref>{{REFjournalREFconference |last=MårildChangedia SM, Gilada IS |first=S. |last2=Jodal |first2=U. |title=Incidence rate Role of first–time symptomatic urinary tract infection male circumcision in HIV transmission insignificant in children under 6 years of age |journal=Acta Paediatr |date=1998 |volume=87 |issue=5 |pages=549-552conjugal relationship (abstract no. ThPeC7420)

}}</ref> found that, during the first 6 years of life, the incidence of UTIs in boys was 1.8%, but in girls was 6.6%. UTIs are less common in boys after the first year of life. Mueller ''et al.'' <ref>{{REFjournalREFconference |last=MuellerConnolly CA, Shishana O, Simbayi L, Colvin M |first=E.R. |last2title=SteinhardtHIV and circumcision in South Africa (Abstract No. MoPeC3491) |first2url=G. |last3place=NaseerBangkok, Thailand |first3source=S.Presented at the 15th International AIDS Conference |titledatefrom=The incidence of genitourinary abnormalities in circumcised and uncircumcised boys presenting with an initial urinary tract infection by 6 months of age2004-07-11 |journaldateto=Pediatrics2004-07-16 |dateaccessdate=1997}}</ref><ref>{{REFconference |volumelast=100 (Supplement)Thomas AG, Bakhireva LN, Brodine SK, Shaffer RA |issuefirst= |pagestitle=580Prevalence of male circumcision and its association with HIV and sexually transmitted infections in a U.S. navy population (Abstract no. TuPeC4861)

}}</ref> did not find a significant difference in UTI rates between circumcised and intact boys with normal urinary tract anatomy.* Other studies suggest that circumcision is more likely to raise than to lower the generally low risk of acquiring Urinary tract infections (UTI): multiple studies from Israel showed a strong correlation between ritual circumcision on the 8th day of life and postoperative UTI.can be effectively treated with antibiotics, this was also proven by studies<ref>{{REFjournal |last=MenahemMcCracken |first=SG. |title=Complications arising from ritual circumcision: pathogenesis Options in antimicrobial management of urinary tract infections in infants and possible preventionchildren |journal=Isr Pediatr Infect Dis J Med Sci |date=19811989 |volume=178 |issue=18 |pages=45552-48555

|last=CohenLarcombe |first=HJ.A. |last2=Drucker |first2=M.M. |last3=Vainer |first3=S. |etal=yes |title=Postcircumcision urinary Urinary tract infectionin children |journal=Clin PediatrBMJ |date=19921999 |volume=31319 |issue=6 |pages=3221173-3241175

}}</ref>. A Swedish study <ref>{{REFjournal |last=GoldmanMårild |first=MS. |last2=BarrJodal |first2=JU. |title=Incidence rate of first–time symptomatic urinary tract infection in children under 6 years of age |journal=Acta Paediatr |date=1998 |volume=87 |issue=5 |pages=549-552 |url= |accessdate=}}</ref> found that, during the first 6 years of life, the incidence of UTIs in boys was 1.8%, but in girls was 6.6%. UTIs are less common in boys after the first year of life. Mueller ''et al.'' <ref>{{REFjournal |last3last=Mueller |first=E.R. |last2=BistritzerSteinhardt |first3first2=TG. |last4last3=AladjemNaseer |first4first3=MS. |title=Urinary The incidence of genitourinary abnormalities in circumcised and uncircumcised boys presenting with an initial urinary tract infection following ritual Jewish circumcisionby 6 months of age |journal=Isr J Med SciPediatrics |date=19961997 |volume=32100 (Supplement)

|pages=1098-1102580

}}</ref>did not find a significant difference in UTI rates between circumcised and intact boys with normal urinary tract anatomy.* It can be concluded Other studies suggest that circumcision is ineffective as a preventive measure against UTIs.* Penile and cervical cancer / HPVmore likely to raise than to lower the generally low risk of acquiring UTI: first multiple studies from Israel showed a strong correlation between ritual circumcision on those diseases the 8th day of life and their assumed prevention by circumcision date back to 1932, a time when the cause for those illnesses was not yet fully understoodpostoperative UTI.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=WolbarstMenahem |first=AS. |title=Circumcision Complications arising from ritual circumcision: pathogenesis and penile cancerpossible prevention |journal=LancetIsr J Med Sci |date=19321981 |volume=117 |issue=56551 |pages=15045-15348

}}</ref>. Today, it is known that sexually transmitted human papillomavirus (HPV) is a major risk factor<ref>{{REFjournal |last=McCanceCohen |first=DH.JA. |last2=KalacheDrucker |first2=AM.M. |last3=AshdownVainer |first3=KS.

|title=Human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 in carcinomas of the penis from BrazilPostcircumcision urinary tract infection |journal=Int J CancerClin Pediatr |date=19861992 |volume=3731 |issue=16 |pages=55322-59324

}}</ref>, as well as smoking<ref>{{REFjournal |last=HarishGoldman |first=KM. |last2=RaviBarr |first2=RJ. |last3=Bistritzer |first3=T. |last4=Aladjem |first4=M. |title=The role of tobacco in penile carcinomaUrinary tract infection following ritual Jewish circumcision |journal=Brit Isr J UrolMed Sci |date=19951996 |volume=7532 |issue=3 |pages=3751098-3771102

}}</ref>. Studies have shown * It can be concluded that there circumcision is no significant difference in the risk of getting penile ineffective as a preventive measure against UTIs.* Penile and cervical cancer between circumcised / HPV: first studies on those diseases and intact men. To prevent their assumed prevention by circumcision date back to 1932, a single case of penile cancer, it would statistically take 600 to 900 circumcisionstime when the cause for those illnesses was not yet fully understood<ref>{{REFdocumentREFjournal |titlelast=Position Paper on Neonatal CircumcisionWolbarst |urlfirst=A. |contributiontitle=Circumcision and penile cancer |lastjournal=Lancet |firstdate=1932 |publishervolume=American Academy of Family Physicians (Leawood, Kansas)1 |formatissue=5655 |datepages=2002150-02-14153 |url=

}}</ref>. The influence of circumcision on the infection risk of the female partner with cervical cancer has been refuted several times as well. Today, it is known that sexually transmitted human papillomavirus (HPV vaccination ) is an effective measure against carcinoma of the cervix.a major risk factor<ref>{{REFjournal |last=McCanceIn conclusion, circumcision does not provide any proven benefits in preventive medicine |first=D.J. |last2=Kalache |first2=A. |last3= Circumcision methods Ashdown |first3=K. |etal=yesThe [[Circumcision methods]] are discussed |title=Human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 in a separate article.carcinomas of the penis from Brazil |journal=Int J Cancer |date=1986 |volume=37 |issue= Risks and late effects 1 |pages=55-59 |url= |accessdate=Just like tonsil or appendix surgery}}</ref>, circumcision is a surgical intervention and brings the usual risks related to surgical operations, alongside several specific risks of complications and late effectsas well as smoking<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Harish |first=K. |last2=Ravi |first2=R. |title=The role of tobacco in penile carcinoma |journal= Possible operative and postoperative complications Brit J Urol |date=1995 |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=375-377Circumcision is surgery. Surgical complications of circumcision generally may be classified as hemorrhage, infection, or surgical misadventure up to and including loss of the penis and [[death]].|url= |accessdate=* Intolerance or allergic reactions to the narcotics used}}</ref>.* Especially Studies have shown that there is no significant difference in newborns, where the bodily pain reduction mechanisms are not yet fully developed, local anaesthesia is often insufficient for the operationrisk of getting penile cancer between circumcised and intact men. Even in conjunction with regional anaesthesia To prevent a single case of the dorsal nerve of the [[penis]]penile cancer, the rate of failure to provide sufficient anaesthetic even for experienced anaesthetists is still 5-10%. The general anaesthesia that it would be needed for newborns, however, poses significant risks for the child, and, therefore, is only likely to be used in emergencies. A surgical operation without proper pain control can lead statistically take 600 to the development of a specific pain memory900 circumcisions<ref>{{REFweb |url=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/vorab/experte-warnt-rituelle-beschneidung-veraendert-das-gehirn-der-kinder-a-849534.htmlREFdocument |title=Kinderschmerz-Experte warnt: Rituelle Beschneidung verändert das Gehirn der KinderPosition Paper on Neonatal Circumcision |trans-titleurl=Children's pain expert warns: Ritual circumcision changes the brain of children |languagecontribution=German |last=Prof. Dr. med. Boris Zernikow

|publisher=Spiegel Online |website= |date=2012-08-12 |accessdate=2019-10-11American Academy of Family Physicians (Leawood, Kansas)

|quotedate=2002-02-14 |accessdate=}}</ref>. In unsedated and partially sedated infants increased secretion The influence of circumcision on the stress hormone cortisol could be observed for months after infection risk of the operationfemale partner with cervical cancer has been refuted several times as well. Overall, their pain threshold was lower and HPV vaccination is an effective measure against carcinoma of the risk of chronic pain increasedcervix. Regardless of these findings In conclusion, infant circumcisions with insufficient or no anaesthetic are still common practice<ref>{{REFjournalcircumcision does not provide any proven benefits in preventive medicine.  |last=Garry= Non-medical indications for circumcision == |first=T. |title=Circumcision: a survey Apart from the medical indication of fees and practicespathological phimosis, there also are other reasons for circumcision. |journal=OBG Management |date=1994 |volume=October |issue= |pagesAesthetic reasons =34-36 |url= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Howard |first=CThe visual appearance of the [[penis]] is changed radically after circumcision.RIn this case, personal taste is decisive whether an intact or a cut [[penis]] is more appealing. Since a circumcision cannot be undone, it is essential to be fully informed about the risks and possible later complications before embarking on an aesthetically motivated circumcision, to decide whether the appearance will justify such bodily modification. |last2=Howard |first2=FSince this modification and its possible late effects will be the lifelong burden of the person who undertakes an aesthetically motivated circumcision to suit his personal preferences, a valid decision to proceed can only be made by the person to be circumcised himself, once he has reached the necessary age and level of maturity to make that decision.MThis should normally be the case when adulthood is reached. |last3=Garfunkel |first3=L.CIt should be noted that every circumcision operation leaves a life-long [[circumcision scar]] that encircles the shaft of the penis. |last4===Financial reasons==de Blieck |first4=E.A. |last5=Weitzman In the United States, payment for non-therapeutic circumcision is made by most [[third-party payment|first5=Mthird-party payers]] without question. |title=Neonatal Doctors frequently perform medically-unnecessary, non-therapeutic circumcision of infants and pain relief: current training practiceschildren simply to collect a fee for the surgical operation. The only beneficiary of such surgery is the [[Financial Incentive| bank account of the medical doctor]]. |journal=Pediatrics |date=1998 |volume=101 |issue= |pagesMoral reasons =423-428 |url= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Stang |first=HWith the [[foreskin]], circumcision removes approximately 70% of the sensitive tissue of the [[penis]], lowering the potential for sexual stimulation accordingly.JDue to the loss of around 50% of the entire penile skin, the [[penis]] loses the reserve skin that provides cutaneous mobility in the erect [[penis]] and the [[gliding action]]. |last2=Snellman In the past, this circumstance was used to make it harder for boys to masturbate and [[masturbation]] less fun, as [[masturbation]] was viewed as immoral and was assumed to cause a variety of diseases. More on that can be found in the chapter "[[Circumcision#Historical_background|first2=LHistorical background]]". Today, it is known that [[masturbation]] has no negative health effects, but can contribute positively to the child's sexual development. Sexuality is no longer a taboo nowadays, while [[masturbation]] is considered to be a natural part of human sexuality and is no longer seen as immoral.WTherefore, circumcision for moral reasons - which would only affect boys too young to give informed consent - is no longer justifiable nowadays. |title=== Hygiene reasons =Circumcision practice patterns in the United States |journal=Pediatrics |date=1998 |volume=101 |issue=e5A common reason stated for circumcision is the assumption of hygienic benefits. This argument has to be viewed in the context of the environment the person in question grows up in. It is commonly known that bad hygienic circumstances, especially insufficient access to clean drinking water, pose a serious problem. The situation in disaster areas or refugee camps in the so-called third world keep reminding us of that. |pages= In western industrial nations, however, this problem does not exist, in view of the availability of clean water for daily personal hygiene. If the cleaning of the genitals is performed on a daily basis - and that may be assumed - no pathogens can accumulate under the [[foreskin]]. Cleaning of the [[Glans penis|url=glans]] and the area underneath the [[foreskin]] is easy - they are simply washed along with the rest of the body, just like the areas between the toes. |accessdate= In small boys, where the [[foreskin]] cannot be retracted yet, cleaning is not necessary, since the [[Synechia|note=Link membrane]] that fuses the [[foreskin]] to the [[AAPGlans penis|glans]] website}}</ref>prevents the accumulation of micro-organisms. During procedures which take several minutesThe so-called "ballooning", where the [[foreskin]] inflates during urination, babies tend to fall into is not a state serious problem. The opening of stuporthe [[foreskin]] in small boys is often quite narrow and serves as a one-way valve, which in allowing the past was falsely interpreted urine to flow out, but preventing entry of microbes, for example from a dirty diaper. As long as peaceful sleepthe child is able to pass water, nurturing the belief that babies felt no paineverything works as nature intended. Measurements taken  But even in those cases revealed areas where there are poorer hygienic conditions and an insufficient access to medical care, the benefits of easier cleaning of a typically 3- circumcised [[penis]] are to 4-fold increase be viewed with a critical eye. Although even longer periods without personal hygiene will not result in cortisol levelsan accumulation of germs under the [[foreskin]], circumcision itself is not without risk of complications. If the operation is carried out without proper sterility, which equals there is a state high risk of an infection of the wound. This also applies to the treatment of severe shockcommon complications like post-operative bleeding.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Gunnar |first=MThe benefit of easier cleaning must be balanced against the risk of promoting serious infections - among others HIV - during the operation.RIn parts of Africa, several dozen of one tribe's boys die each year as a result of their circumcision. |last2 ==Fisch |first2Circumcision methods =R.O. |last3=Korsvik |first3=SThe [[Circumcision methods]] are discussed in a separate article. |last4=Donhowe |first4=J.M. |title=The Risks and late effects == Just like tonsil or appendix surgery, circumcision is a surgical intervention and brings the usual risks related to surgical operations, alongside several specific risks of circumcision on serum cortisol complications and behaviorlate effects.  |journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology |date=1981 |volume=6 |issuePossible operative and postoperative complications ===3 |pages=269-275Circumcision is surgery. |url=Surgical complications of circumcision generally may be classified as hemorrhage, infection, or surgical misadventure up to and including loss of the penis and [[death]]. |accessdate=}}</ref>* Intolerance or allergic reactions to the narcotics used.* Postoperative wound Especially in newborns, where the bodily painreduction mechanisms are not yet fully developed, local anaesthesia is often insufficient for the operation. Even in conjunction with regional anaesthesia of the case dorsal nerve of children's circumcisions conceivably worsened by the forceful breaking of [[penis]], the preputial adhesions.* Postoperative bleeding rate of the woundfailure to provide sufficient anaesthetic even for experienced anaesthetists is still 5-10%. This can have severe consequences especially The general anaesthesia that would be needed for newborns, however, poses significant risks for very young infantsthe child, and, therefore, if they are not treated promptly. Their blood volume is only about 85 ml per kilogram of body weight, and even moderate blood loss likely to be used in emergencies. A surgical operation without proper pain control can lead to hypovolaemia, hypovolaemic shock and even death.the development of a specific pain memory<ref>{{REFbookREFweb |url=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/vorab/experte-warnt-rituelle-beschneidung-veraendert-das-gehirn-der-kinder-a-849534.html |title=Kinderschmerz-Experte warnt: Rituelle Beschneidung verändert das Gehirn der Kinder |trans-title=Children's pain expert warns: Ritual circumcision changes the brain of children |language=German |last=Smart J, Nolan TProf. Dr. med. (Editors)Boris Zernikow

|year=2000 |title=Paediatric Handbook |url= |work= |editor= |editionpublisher=6Spiegel Online |volumewebsite= |chapterdate=2012-08-12 |pages=82 |location=Victoria, Australia |publisheraccessdate=Blackwell Science Asia2019-10-11 |isbnformat=

|note=}}</ref><ref>{{REFdocumentREFjournal |last=Howard |first=C.R. |last2=Howard |first2=F.M. |last3=Garfunkel |titlefirst3=Autopsy of Demetrius MankerL.C. |urllast4=de Blieck |contributionfirst4=Case 93-1711E.A. |lastlast5=WetliWeitzman |firstfirst5=CVM. |publishertitle=MiamiNeonatal circumcision and pain relief: Dade County Medical Examiner Departmentcurrent training practices |formatjournal=Pediatrics |date=19931998 |volume=101 |issue= |pages=423-06-23428 |url=

|last=HissStang |first=H.J. |last2=HorowitzSnellman |first2=AL. |last3=Kahana |first3=TW. |title=Fatal haemorrhage following male ritual circumcisionCircumcision practice patterns in the United States |journal=J Clin Forensic MedPediatrics |date=20001998 |volume=7101 |issue=e5 |pages=32-34 |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/death/hiss1/ |accessdate=2019-11-06}}</ref><ref>{{REFdocument |title=Judgement of inquiry into the death of McWillis, Ryleigh Roman Bryan

|contributionaccessdate= |note=Link to [[AAP]] website}}</ref>. During procedures which take several minutes, babies tend to fall into a state of stupor, which in the past was falsely interpreted as peaceful sleep, nurturing the belief that babies felt no pain. Measurements taken in those cases revealed a typically 3- to 4-fold increase in cortisol levels, which equals a state of severe shock.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=NewellGunnar |first=TECM.R. |publisherlast2=Burnaby, BFisch |first2=R.O.C |last3=Korsvik |first3=S.: B |last4=Donhowe |first4=J.CM. Coroner's Service |formattitle=The effects of circumcision on serum cortisol and behavior |journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology |date=2004-01-191981 |accessdatevolume=}}</ref>* Postoperative infections. This includes both local infections, which can be treated with local therapy, and systemic infections, requiring systemic antibiotic treatment.<ref>{{REFconference6 |lastissue=Dr. med. Hartmann3 |firstpages=Wolfgang269-275

* [http://www.circumstitions.com/Restric/Botched9wd.html Wound dehiscence]Postoperative wound pain, meaning in the separation case of children's circumcisions conceivably worsened by the edges forceful breaking of the wound or the tissue after suturingpreputial adhesions.* Adhesion between the surface or rim Postoperative bleeding of the [[Glans penis|glans]] with the neighbouring penile skin, causing skin pockets and bridges, as well as visually unpleasant results like uneven scars, which make a re-circumcision necessarywound.* Postoperative [[phimosis]]: a phimotic ring This can develop during scarringhave severe consequences especially for very young infants, which makes a re-circumcision necessaryif they are not treated promptly. According Their blood volume is only about 85 ml per kilogram of body weight, and even moderate blood loss can lead to a study by Blalock ''et alhypovolaemia, hypovolaemic shock and even death.''<ref>{{REFjournalREFbook |last=Blalock |first=H.Smart J, Nolan T.(Editors) |last2=Vemulakonda |first2first=V. |last3year=Ritchey |first3=M.L. |last4=Ribbeck |first4=M.2000 |title=Outpatient management of [[phimosis]] Following newborn circumcision |journal=J Urol |date=2003 |volume=169 |issue=6 |pages=2332-2334Paediatric Handbook

|accessdatework=}}</ref>, the prevalence is 2.9%, according to Leitch<ref>{{REFjournal |editor= |lastedition=Leitch6 |firstvolume=I.O.W. |titlechapter=Circumcision - a continuing enigma |journalpages=Aust Paediatr J82 |datelocation=1970Victoria, Australia |volumepublisher=6Blackwell Science Asia |issueisbn= |pagesquote=59-65 |urlaccessdate= |accessdatenote=}}</ref> 5.5%.* Meatal stenosis, a pathological narrowing of the opening of the urethra, which mostly occurs in infancy and early childhood. It is one of the most common complications of infant circumcision. A study from 2006 found meatal stenosis exclusively in previously circumcised boys. The incidence rate after a circumcision is at approximately 10%.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Van Howe |first=R.S.REFdocument |title=Incidence Autopsy of meatal stenosis following neonatal circumcision in a primary care setting |journal=Clin Pediatr (Phila) |note=Jan-Feb 2006 |date=2006-01 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=49-54Demetrius Manker

|last=StenramHiss |first=AJ. |last2=MalmforsHorowitz |first2=GA. |last3=OkmianKahana |first3=LT. |title=Circumcision for [[phimosis]]: a follow-up studyFatal haemorrhage following male ritual circumcision |journal=Scandinavian journal of urology and nephrologyJ Clin Forensic Med |date=19862000 |volume=207 |issue=2 |pages=8932-34 |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/death/hiss1/ |accessdate=2019-11-06}}</ref><ref>{{REFdocument |title=Judgement of inquiry into the death of McWillis, Ryleigh Roman Bryan

|pubmedIDcontribution=3749823 |last=Newell |first=TEC |publisher=Burnaby, B.C.: B.C. Coroner's Service |format= |date=2004-01-19 |accessdate=}}</ref>* Postoperative infections. This includes both local infections, which can be treated with local therapy, and systemic infections, requiring systemic antibiotic treatment.<ref>{{REFconference |last=Dr. med. Hartmann |first=Wolfgang |url= |place=Rechtsausschuss des Bundestages [Legal Committee of the Bundestag] (German) |title=Stellungnahme zur Anhörung am 26. November 2012 [Opinion on the hearing on 26 November 2012] (German) |date=2012-11-26

* Knot formation of the veins[http://www.circumstitions.com/Restric/Botched9wd. If html Wound dehiscence], meaning the dorsal vein, which originates in separation of the tip edges of the [[foreskin]], is cut during circumcision without being clamped and sutured at its origin separately, it starts to develop new branches over time, which can lead to wound or the development of knotstissue after suturing.* Possible deformities due to circumcision include hypoplasia of Adhesion between the [[penis]] (micro-penis) and induratio [[penis]] plastica (skewed penis).* Medical malpractice can also not be ruled out. Injuries, partly surface or entirely severing rim of the [[Glans penis|glans]] or with the [[penis]] can occur.* In rare casesneighbouring penile skin, necrosiscausing skin pockets and bridges, gangreneas well as visually unpleasant results like uneven scars, ischaemia, keloid formation and circulatory problems may also occurwhich make a re-circumcision necessary.* When the circumcision is followed by the ultra-orthodox Jewish ritual of Metzitzah B'Peh (which consists of sucking blood from the wound with the mouth), there is Postoperative [[phimosis]]: a risk of infection with herpes simplex type 1phimotic ring can develop during scarring, which can lead makes a re-circumcision necessary. According to brain damage or deatha study by Blalock ''et al.''<ref>{{REFwebREFjournal |last=Blalock |urlfirst=http://wwwH.nytimesJ.com/2012/03/08/nyregion/infants-death-renews-debate-over-a-circumcision-ritual.html?_r |last2=0Vemulakonda |titlefirst2=Baby’s Death Renews Debate Over a Circumcision RitualV. |lastlast3=RobbinsRitchey |firstfirst3=LizM.L. |datelast4=2012-03-07Ribbeck |accessdatefirst4=2019-10-11M.}}</ref> === Physical late effects = |title== * An unavoidable late effect Outpatient management of any circumcision is the permanent loss of sexual sensitivity. This is partly due to the removal of sensory tissue. The [[foreskinphimosis]] contains very many nerve endings and touch receptors, which account for the major part of male sexual sensation. If the [[foreskin]] is removed, they can no longer provide sexual stimulation. It is also partly due to the fact that the surface of the [[Glans penisFollowing newborn circumcision |glans]] reacts to the missing protection from friction and drying out by developing a callus layer. This reduces the sensitivity of the remaining nerves in the [[Glans penisjournal=J Urol |glans]] gradually over the years. The study conducted by Sorrells ''et al.''<ref>{{REFjournaldate=2003 |lastvolume=Sorrells169 |firstissue=M.L.6 |last2pages=Snyder2332-2334 |first2url=J..L. |last3accessdate=Reiss}}</ref>, the prevalence is 2.9%, according to Leitch<ref>{{REFjournal |first3last=M.D.Leitch |etalfirst=yesI.O.W. |title=FineCircumcision -touch pressure thresholds in the adult [[penis]]a continuing enigma |journal=BJU IntAust Paediatr J |date=20071970 |volume=996

|pages=86459-86965

}}</ref> found 5.5%.* Meatal stenosis, a significant reduction pathological narrowing of sensitivity to touch for circumcised compared to intact [[penis]]es the opening of the urethra, which mostly occurs in adult malesinfancy and early childhood. Other studies revealed that It is one of the most common complications of infant circumcision. A study from 2006 found meatal stenosis exclusively in previously circumcised men use condoms significantly less often than intact men, since they further limit the sexual sensitivity (see above)boys.* Painful tension can occur when there The incidence rate after a circumcision is too little reserve skin left to support a full erectionat approximately 10%.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=TaylorVan Howe |first=J.R. |last2=Lockwood |first2=A.PS. |last3title=TaylorIncidence of meatal stenosis following neonatal circumcision in a primary care setting |first3journal=A.J.Clin Pediatr (Phila) |titlenote=The prepuce: <q>Specialized mucosa of the [[penis]] and its loss to circumcision</q> |journal=British Journal of UrologyJan-Feb 2006 |date=19962006-01 |volume=7745 |issue=1 |pages=29149-29554

}}</ref>. This risk is partly dependent on the anatomy of the [[penis]]. While some [[penis]]es already have the majority of their full size when flaccid ([[Flesh Penis]], or "[[shower]]"), others are rather short when flaccid and double or more their size during an erection ([[Blood Penis]], or "[[grower]]"). Especially in children's circumcision, where the [[penis]] is not yet fully developed, the amount of reserve skin needed in adulthood cannot be estimated.* Erectile dysfunction: Both the damage inflicted to the blood vessels in the [[foreskin]] and the reduced sexual sensitivity can be causes for reduced erectile function with advancing age.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=MoneyStenram |first=JA. |last2=DavisonMalmfors |first2=JG. |last3=Okmian |first3=L. |title=Adult penile circumcisionCircumcision for [[phimosis]]: Erotosexual and cosmetic sequelaea follow-up study |journal=Journal Scandinavian journal of Sex Researchurology and nephrology |date=19831986 |volume=1920 |issue=2 |pages=289-29289

* Orgasm problems: In Knot formation of the veins. If the dorsal vein, which originates in the wake tip of reduced sexual sensitivitythe [[foreskin]], is cut during circumcision without being clamped and sutured at its origin separately, it starts to develop new branches over time, due which can lead to the loss development of sensory tissue and gradual keratinization knots.* Possible deformities due to circumcision include hypoplasia of the surface of [[penis]] (micro-penis) and induratio [[penis]] plastica (skewed penis).* Medical malpractice can also not be ruled out. Injuries, partly or entirely severing the [[Glans penis|glans]]or the [[penis]] can occur.* In rare cases, orgasm necrosis, gangrene, ischaemia, keloid formation and circulatory problems may develop with increasing agealso occur. In this case, * When the sexual arousal created circumcision is followed by intercourse or [[masturbation]] the ultra-orthodox Jewish ritual of Metzitzah B'Peh (which consists of sucking blood from the wound with the mouth), there is not enough a risk of infection with herpes simplex type 1, which can lead to achieve orgasmbrain damage or death.<ref>{{REFweb |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/08/nyregion/infants-death-renews-debate-over-a-circumcision-ritual. A preliminary stage of this html?_r=0 |title=Baby’s Death Renews Debate Over a Circumcision Ritual |last=Robbins |first=Liz |date=2012-03-07 |accessdate=2019-10-11}}</ref> === Physical late effects === * An unavoidable late effect of any circumcision is the prolonged time circumcised men need to reach an orgasmpermanent loss of sexual sensitivity. This is often fielded as partly due to the "cut men have more endurance" argument removal of sensory tissue. The [[foreskin]] contains very many nerve endings and touch receptors, which account for circumcisionthe major part of male sexual sensation. If the [[foreskin]] is removed, they can no longer provide sexual stimulation.* Vaginal dryness: Due It is also partly due to the loss fact that the surface of the natural gliding action, which comes [[Glans penis|glans]] reacts to the missing protection from friction and drying out by developing a callus layer. This reduces the mobility sensitivity of the fore- and shaft skin, a much increased friction between remaining nerves in the [[Glans penis|glans]] and vagina occurs during intercoursegradually over the years. The study conducted by Sorrells ''et al. This can make intercourse painful for both partners and lead to abrasions''<ref>{{REFjournal |last=FrischSorrells |first=MortenM.L. |author-linklast2=Morten FrischSnyder |first2=MortenJ..L. |last2last3=LindholmReiss |first3=MortenM.D. |last3etal=Grønbækyes |title=Male circumcision and sexual function in men and women: a surveyFine-based, cross-sectional study touch pressure thresholds in Denmarkthe adult [[penis]] |journal=International Journal of EpidemiologyBJU Int |date=2011-102007 |volume=4099 |issue=5 |pages=1367864-1381869 |url= |pubmedID=21672947 |DOI=10.1093/ije/dyr104

}}</ref> found a significant reduction of sensitivity to touch for circumcised compared to intact [[penis]]es in adult males. Other studies revealed that circumcised men use condoms significantly less often than intact men, since they further limit the sexual sensitivity (see above).* Painful tension can occur when there is too little reserve skin left to support a full erection<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Cortés-GonzálezTaylor |first=J.R. |last2=Arratia-MaqueoLockwood |first2=JA.P. |last3=Gómez-GuerraTaylor |first3=LA.J. |title=Does The prepuce: <q>Specialized mucosa of the [[penis]] and its loss to circumcision has an effect on female's perception of sexual satisfaction?</q> |journal=Rev Invest ClinBritish Journal of Urology |date=20081996 |volume=6077 |issue=3 |pages=227291-295

}}</ref> The prolonged time it takes circumcised men to reach orgasm. This risk is partly dependent on the anatomy of the [[penis]]. While some [[penis]]es already have the majority of their full size when flaccid ([[Flesh Penis]], or "[[shower]]"), as well as the often longer others are rather short when flaccid and double or more vigorous thrusting movements - compared their size during an erection ([[Blood Penis]], or "[[grower]]"). Especially in children's circumcision, where the [[penis]] is not yet fully developed, the amount of reserve skin needed in adulthood cannot be estimated.* Erectile dysfunction: Both the damage inflicted to intact men - play a part the blood vessels in thisthe [[foreskin]] and the reduced sexual sensitivity can be causes for reduced erectile function with advancing age.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=ColdMoney |first=C.J. |last2=TaylorDavison |first2=J.R. |title=The prepuceAdult penile circumcision: Erotosexual and cosmetic sequelae |journal=BJU IntJournal of Sex Research |date=19991983 |volume=8319 |issue=Suppl. 1 |pages=34289-44292

}}</ref>* Orgasm problems: In the wake of reduced sexual sensitivity, due to the loss of sensory tissue and gradual keratinization of the surface of the [[Glans penis|glans]], orgasm problems may develop with increasing age. In this case, the sexual arousal created by intercourse or [[masturbation]] is not enough to achieve orgasm. A preliminary stage of this late effect is the prolonged time circumcised men need to reach an orgasm. This is often fielded as the "cut men have more endurance" argument for circumcision.* Vaginal dryness: Due to the loss of the natural gliding action, which comes from the mobility of the fore- and shaft skin, a much increased friction between [[penis]] and vagina occurs during intercourse. This can make intercourse painful for both partners and lead to abrasions<ref>{{REFjournal |last=FinkFrisch |first=K.S.Morten |last2author-link=CarsonMorten Frisch |first2=C.C.Morten |last3last2=DeVellisLindholm |first3=R.F.Morten |last3=Grønbæk |title=Adult Circumcision Outcomes StudyMale circumcision and sexual function in men and women: Effect on Erectile Function, Penile Sensitivitya survey-based, Sexual Activity and Satisfactioncross-sectional study in Denmark |journal=J UrolInternational Journal of Epidemiology |date=20022011-10 |volume=16740

|pages=21131367-21161381

}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Cortés-González |first=J. |last2=Arratia-Maqueo |first2= Psychological late effects J. |last3=Gómez-Guerra |first3=L. |title= Psychological late effects are also possible after a Does circumcision, especially if the operation was carried out in childhood. On this occasion a variety of trauma may occur, which depend, among others, has an effect on age and circumstances female's perception of the circumcision. For example, whether the circumcision took place with or without sufficient anaesthesia, if the individual has been informed about the operation beforehand, if he was circumcised against his will or without his consent, and also, in the case of infant circumcision, if he was told about it during childhood or had to find it out coincidentally on his own.sexual satisfaction? |journal=Rev Invest Clin |date=2008 |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=227 |url= |pubmedID=18807735 |accessdate=}}</ref> The psychological late effects of circumcision are not yet fully researched, and many studies took place on rather a small scale. This situation needs prolonged time it takes circumcised men to be rectified, because the available studiesreach orgasm, as well as the histories of negatively affected often longer and more vigorous thrusting movements - compared to intact men, suggest that these late effects may have more impact than previously assumed- play a part in this. * It was observed that infants, following circumcision without pain control, had a disturbed bond with their mother<ref>{{REFjournal |last=MarshallCold |first=RC.EJ. |last2=PorterTaylor |first2=FJ.LR. |last3=Rogers |first3=A.G. |etal=yes |title=Circumcision: II effects upon mother-infant interactionThe prepuce |journal=Early Hum DevBJU Int |date=19821999 |volume=783 |issue=4Suppl. 1 |pages=36734-37444 |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/birth/marshall2/

}}</ref>, as well as problems with nurturing, up to the point of refusal to be fed. The sleeping habits of these babies were also disturbed, with prolonged non-REM sleep and increased waking.* In boys circumcised in childhood, post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) could be diagnosed. In a study on Philippine boys, in whom no PTSD was found prior to the operation, 69% of the boys circumcised in the traditional ritual and 51% of those circumcised by standard medical procedures (including anaesthesia) fulfilled the DSM-IV criteria for PTSD following the operation.<ref>{{REFbookREFjournal |last=RamosFink |first=K.S. |last2=BoyleCarson |first2=GJ |year=2001C.C. |titlelast3=Ritual and medical circumcision among Filipino boys: evidence of post-traumatic stress disorderDeVellis |urlfirst3=https://link.springerR.com/chapter/10F.1007/978-1-4757-3351-8_14 |worktitle=Understanding circumcisionAdult Circumcision Outcomes Study: A Multi-Disciplinary Approach to a Multi-Dimensional ProblemEffect on Erectile Function, Penile Sensitivity, Sexual Activity and Satisfaction |editorjournal=Denniston GC, Hodges FM, Milos MFJ Urol |editiondate=2002 |volume=167 |chapterissue=5 |pages=2532113-2702116 |location=New York |publisher=Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers |isbn= |quoteurl=

* Circumcisions=== Psychological late effects === Psychological late effects are also possible after a circumcision, especially those that happen without consent, can spark feelings if the operation was carried out in childhood. On this occasion a variety of helplessness and alienationtrauma may occur, which can persist as trauma. These feeling can also be triggered laterdepend, among others, when someone circumcised as an infant becomes aware on age and circumstances of his the circumcision. In an online studyFor example, interviewed men stated they felt betrayed - 55% by whether the mothercircumcision took place with or without sufficient anaesthesia, 50% by if the individual has been informed about the fatheroperation beforehand, if he was circumcised against his will or without his consent, and 58% by also, in the doctorcase of infant circumcision, if he was told about it during childhood or had to find it out coincidentally on his own. The psychological late effects of circumcision are not yet fully researched, and 73% felt many studies took place on rather a small scale. This situation needs to be rectified, because the available studies, as well as the histories of negatively affected men, suggest that these late effects may have more impact than previously assumed. * It was observed that infants, following circumcision without pain control, had a disturbed bond with their human rights had been violated.mother<ref name="GSoCH">{{REFwebREFjournal |last=Marshall |first=R.E. |last2=Porter |first2=F.L. |last3=Rogers |first3=A.G. |etal=yes |title=Circumcision: II effects upon mother-infant interaction |journal=Early Hum Dev |date=1982 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=367-374 |url=http://www.circumcisionharmcirp.org/ |title=Global Survey of Circumcision Harmlibrary/birth/marshall2/ |accessdate=2019-10-12}}</ref>* It can frequently be found that the loss is denied, much as happens well as problems with nurturing, up to the loss point of other body partsrefusal to be fed. This denial can lead to fathers having their sons The sleeping habits of these babies were also disturbed, with prolonged non-REM sleep and increased waking.* In boys circumcised in order not to childhood, post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) could be reminded of their own lossdiagnosed. In this processa study on Philippine boys, their own body is defined as "normal" and in whom no PTSD was found prior to the [[foreskin]] redefined as a foreign object. Their own parents are seen as "good"operation, so that this image is projected onto 69% of the circumcision their parents carried out as well, boys circumcised in order to keep the positive emotion intact. The father wants to be a "good" father later in life as well, traditional ritual and so, following an idealised image 51% of his own parents, circumcision, which has been redefined as a "good thing", is passed on to his son those circumcised by having him circumcised as wellstandard medical procedures (including anaesthesia) fulfilled the DSM-IV criteria for PTSD following the operation.<ref>{{REFjournalREFbook |last=van der KolkRamos |first=B.A.S |last2=Boyle |first2=GJ |year=2001 |title=Ritual and medical circumcision among Filipino boys: evidence of post-traumatic stress disorder |url=httphttps://wwwlink.cirpspringer.orgcom/librarychapter/psych/vanderkolk10.1007/978-1-4757-3351-8_14 |titlework=The compulsion Understanding circumcision: A Multi-Disciplinary Approach to repeat the trauma: rea Multi-enactment, revictimization, and masochismDimensional Problem |journaleditor=Psychiatr Clin North AmDenniston GC, Hodges FM, Milos MF |dateedition=1989 |volume=12 |issuechapter=2 |pages=389253-411270 |accessdatelocation=2019-10-12New York}}< |publisher=Kluwer Academic/ref><ref>{{REFjournalPlenum Publishers |isbn= |lastquote=Goldman |firstaccessdate=R. |authornote=}}</ref>* Circumcisions, especially those that happen without consent, can spark feelings of helplessness and alienation, which can persist as trauma. These feeling can also be triggered later, when someone circumcised as an infant becomes aware of his circumcision. In an online study, interviewed men stated they felt betrayed -link55% by the mother, 50% by the father, and 58% by the doctor, and 73% felt that their human rights had been violated.<ref name=Ronald Goldman"GSoCH">{{REFweb |url=http://www.cirpcircumcisionharm.org/library/psych/goldman1/ |title=The psychological impact Global Survey of circumcision |journal=BJU Int |date=1999 |volume=83 |issue=Suppl. 1 |pages=93-103Circumcision Harm

* It can frequently be found that the loss is denied, much as happens with the loss of other body parts. This denial can lead to fathers having their sons circumcised in order not to be reminded of their own loss. In this process, their own body is defined as "normal" and the [[foreskin]] redefined as a foreign object. Their own parents are seen as "good", so that this image is projected onto the circumcision their parents carried out as well, in order to keep the positive emotion intact. The father wants to be a "good" father later in life as well, and so, following an idealised image of his own parents, circumcision, which has been redefined as a "good thing", is passed on to his son by having him circumcised as well.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=van der Kolk |first=B.A. |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/psych/vanderkolk/ |title=The compulsion to repeat the trauma: re-enactment, revictimization, and masochism |journal=Psychiatr Clin North Am |date=1989 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=389-411 |accessdate=2019-10-12}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal |last=Goldman |first=R. |author-link=Ronald Goldman |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/psych/goldman1/ |title=The psychological impact of circumcision |journal=BJU Int |date=1999 |volume=83 |issue=Suppl. 1 |pages=93-103 |accessdate=2019-10-12}}</ref>* If the circumcised male feels incomplete, or due to the missing [[foreskin]] disadvantaged compared to intact males, an inferiority complex and depression may occur. This can be accompanied by conscious recognition of his own incompleteness, or the deficiency may remain completely subconscious<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Rhinehart |first=J.

Human babies, because they are not yet in possession of language, are incapable of giving or refusing consent for being circumcised. The element of force has led some scholars to view the circumcision of baby boys as a category of forced circumcision.<ref>For example, Frederick M. Hodges, a medical historian, writes: "In the late 1970s, as the Americans were growing increasingly aware of the abuses of power rampant throughout the nation's social institutions, influential grass-roots movements protesting the forced circumcision of American children sprang up nationwide." F. Hodges, "A Short History," p. 31; see also [[Leonard B. Glick|Glick]], ''Marked in Your Flesh'', pp. 273-281.</ref> There are, however, physicians in the United States who argue strongly for routine non-therapeutic circumcision of newborn babies; and circumcision is widely accepted as a postnatal procedure in American hospitals.<ref>{{REFbook