Difference between revisions of "South Korea"
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| − | + | [[File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg|thumb|150px|Flag of South Korea]] | |
| − | '''South Korea''', a traditionally non-circumcising nation, nevertheless, adopted the practice of non-therapeutic [[circumcision]] during and after the Korean War (1950-53). The adoption of circumcision may be traced to 1950, when the United States intervened in the Korean War and large numbers of mostly circumcised American troops were sent into South Korea to aid in its defense.<ref name="kim1999">{{REFjournal | + | '''South Korea''', a traditionally non-circumcising nation, nevertheless, adopted the practice of non-therapeutic [[circumcision]] during and after the Korean War (1950-53). The adoption of [[circumcision]] may be traced to 1950, when the [[United States]], which was then a nation devoted to circumcision, intervened in the Korean War (1950-53) and large numbers of mostly [[circumcised]] American troops, attended by mostly [[circumcised doctors]] in the American medical corp, were sent into South Korea to aid in its defense.<ref name="kim1999">{{REFjournal |
|last=Kim | |last=Kim | ||
| − | |first= | + | |first=Dai Sik |
|init=DS | |init=DS | ||
| − | |author-link= | + | |author-link=Dai Sik Kim |
|last2=Lee | |last2=Lee | ||
|first2= | |first2= | ||
| Line 15: | Line 15: | ||
|etal=no | |etal=no | ||
|title=Male circumcision: a South Korean perspective | |title=Male circumcision: a South Korean perspective | ||
| − | |||
| − | |||
|journal=BJU Int | |journal=BJU Int | ||
|location= | |location= | ||
|date=1999-01 | |date=1999-01 | ||
| − | |volume=83 | + | |volume=83 |
| − | |issue= | + | |issue=Suppl 1 |
|article= | |article= | ||
|page=28-33 | |page=28-33 | ||
| Line 36: | Line 34: | ||
==South Korean practice== | ==South Korean practice== | ||
===Recent introduction=== | ===Recent introduction=== | ||
| − | A 1971 study of men who were being examined for military service found that only five percent of the men were circumcised. These men must have been born just before or during the Korean War, but were not circumcised, so this indicates that the onset of circumcision is of recent vintage.<ref>{{REFjournal | + | It is believed that circumcision had been used in South Korea prior to the arrival of American forces in 1945 to treat [[phimosis]].<ref>{{REFnews |
| + | |title=The Whale Hunt | ||
| + | |url=http://www.cirp.org/news/ohmynews2007-02-09/ | ||
| + | |last= | ||
| + | |first= | ||
| + | |coauthors= | ||
| + | |publisher=OHMY NEWS INTERNATIONAL | ||
| + | |website= | ||
| + | |date=2007-02-09 | ||
| + | |accessdate=2021-02-09 | ||
| + | |quote= | ||
| + | }}</ref> | ||
| + | A 1971 study of South Korean men who were being examined for military service found that only five percent of the men were [[circumcised]]. These men must have been born just before or during the Korean War, but were not [[circumcised]], so this indicates that the onset of non-therapeutic circumcision is of more recent vintage.<ref>{{REFjournal | ||
|last=Jung | |last=Jung | ||
|init=KM | |init=KM | ||
| Line 55: | Line 65: | ||
===Concept of "naturally circumcised"=== | ===Concept of "naturally circumcised"=== | ||
| − | Korean men have invented several reasons that they do not need a surgical circumcision, such as their foreskin is short, that it retracts when they have an erection, that it is not phimosed, or other reasons. This is called "naturally circumcised".<ref name="kim1999" /> | + | Korean men have invented several reasons that they do not need a surgical [[adult circumcision| circumcision]], such as their [[foreskin]] is short, that it retracts when they have an [[erection]], that it is not phimosed, or other reasons. This is called "naturally circumcised".<ref name="kim1999" /> |
===Usual age for circumcision=== | ===Usual age for circumcision=== | ||
| − | Most Korean males are circumcised not in infancy but at puberty, as teenagers or in their 20s, so it is now viewed as a "rite of passage". Circumcision in infancy is rare in South Korea.<ref name="kim1999" /> | + | Most Korean males are [[circumcised]] not in infancy but at puberty, as teenagers or in their 20s, so it is now viewed as a "rite of passage". [[Circumcision]] in infancy is rare in South Korea.<ref name="kim1999" /> Ku ''et al''. (2003) reported "a positive attitude toward circumcision in South Korean men, linking it with hygienic practices." They also reported the decision to circumcise was most often made by parents.<ref name="ku2003">{{REFjournal |
| + | |last=Ku | ||
| + | |first= | ||
| + | |init=JH | ||
| + | |author-link= | ||
| + | |last2=Kim | ||
| + | |first2= | ||
| + | |init2=ME | ||
| + | |author2-link= | ||
| + | |last3=Lee | ||
| + | |first3= | ||
| + | |init3=NK | ||
| + | |author3-link= | ||
| + | |last4=Park | ||
| + | |first4= | ||
| + | |init4=YH | ||
| + | |author4-link= | ||
| + | |etal=no | ||
| + | |title=Circumcision practice patterns in South Korea: community based survey | ||
| + | |trans-title= | ||
| + | |language= | ||
| + | |journal=Sexually Transmitted Infections | ||
| + | |location= | ||
| + | |date=2003 | ||
| + | |volume=79 | ||
| + | |issue=1 | ||
| + | |article= | ||
| + | |page=65-7 | ||
| + | |pages= | ||
| + | |url=https://sti.bmj.com/content/79/1/65.abstract | ||
| + | |archived= | ||
| + | |quote= | ||
| + | |pubmedID=12576619 | ||
| + | |pubmedCID=1744613 | ||
| + | |DOI=10.1136/sti.79.1.65 | ||
| + | |accessdate=2021-06-07 | ||
| + | }}</ref> The most usual age for [[Adolescent and adult circumcision| circumcision is about age 12]].<ref name="mckinney2002">{{REFnews | ||
| + | |title=Korean Circumcision Rising, in Emulation of West | ||
| + | |url=http://www.cirp.org/news/reuters01-21-02/ | ||
| + | |last=McKinney | ||
| + | |first=Merritt | ||
| + | |coauthors= | ||
| + | |publisher=Reuters Health | ||
| + | |website= | ||
| + | |date=2002-01-21 | ||
| + | |accessdate=2021-06-07 | ||
| + | |quote=It is clear that most South Korean doctors believe in the strong correlation between economic prosperity, medical advance and circumcision. | ||
| + | }}</ref> | ||
===Prevalence of circumcision=== | ===Prevalence of circumcision=== | ||
| − | Kim ''et al'' | + | Kim ''et al'' (1999) carried out a survey of men in the Seoul area. They found that in the 16–25 year old age group 91 percent had been circumcised, with lesser percentages with increasing age groups.<ref name="kim1999" /> |
==Results of large scale survey== | ==Results of large scale survey== | ||
| − | Pang & Kim (2002) carried out a large scale survey of 5,434 males, aged | + | Pang & Kim (2002) carried out a large scale survey of 5,434 males, aged 0–92, and 267 practicing physicians to learn more about the effects of male circumcision in South Korea. The authors observed that South Korea is the only nation in the region where non-therapeutic circumcision of boys is practiced.<ref name="pang2002">{{REFjournal |
|last=Pang | |last=Pang | ||
|first= | |first= | ||
| Line 73: | Line 130: | ||
|author-link= | |author-link= | ||
|last2=Kim | |last2=Kim | ||
| − | |first2= | + | |first2=Dai Sik |
|init2=DS | |init2=DS | ||
| − | |author2-link= | + | |author2-link=Dai Sik Kim |
|etal=no | |etal=no | ||
|title=Extraordinarily high rates of male circumcision in South Korea: history and underlying causes | |title=Extraordinarily high rates of male circumcision in South Korea: history and underlying causes | ||
| Line 88: | Line 145: | ||
|page= | |page= | ||
|pages=48-54 | |pages=48-54 | ||
| − | |url= | + | |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/pang1/ |
|archived= | |archived= | ||
|quote= | |quote= | ||
| Line 99: | Line 156: | ||
===Incidence and prevalence=== | ===Incidence and prevalence=== | ||
| − | The incidence of circumcision was found to exceed 100 percent, since the number of older males being circumcised, exceeded the birth rate.<ref name="pang2002" /> | + | The incidence of circumcision was found to exceed 100 percent, since the number of older males being [[circumcised]], exceeded the birth rate.<ref name="pang2002" /> |
The prevalence of circumcision was 93 percent in the 20-year-old age group and 60 percent over all ages.<ref name="pang2002" /> | The prevalence of circumcision was 93 percent in the 20-year-old age group and 60 percent over all ages.<ref name="pang2002" /> | ||
| Line 109: | Line 166: | ||
===Reports from medical doctors=== | ===Reports from medical doctors=== | ||
| − | Of the doctors surveyed, 41 percent performed circumcisions. General surgeons and urologists were most likely to perform circumcisions. Unlike America, only 28 percent of obstetricians did circumcisions and no paediatricians performed circumcisions. Doctors generally were poorly informed about circumcision.<ref name="pang2002" /> | + | Of the doctors surveyed, 41 percent performed circumcisions. General surgeons and urologists were most likely to perform circumcisions. Unlike America, only 28 percent of obstetricians did circumcisions and no paediatricians performed circumcisions. Doctors generally were poorly informed about [[circumcision]].<ref name="pang2002" /> |
==Medical research== | ==Medical research== | ||
| − | Kim & Pang (2007) studied the effect of the [[foreskin]] on [[masturbation]]. They reported that masturbatory pleasure decreased in 48% of the respondents and increased in 8%, while difficulty increased in 63% but was easier in 37%. They concluded that there was a decrease in masturbatory pleasure after circumcision.<ref name="kimpang2007">{{REFjournal | + | Kim & Pang (2007) studied the effect of the [[foreskin]] on [[masturbation]]. They reported that masturbatory pleasure decreased in 48% of the respondents and increased in 8%, while difficulty increased in 63% but was easier in 37%. They concluded that there was a decrease in masturbatory pleasure after [[adult circumcision| circumcision]].<ref name="kimpang2007">{{KimDS PangMG 2007}}</ref> |
| + | |||
| + | ==Declining rate of male circumcision reported== | ||
| + | |||
| + | Kim et al. (2012) reported a new survey carried out in 2010-11 that found a sharp decline in the incidence of circumcision. The circumcision rate in the age 14–16 age group had declined over a decade from 88.4% to 56.4%. The circumcision rate in the 17–19 age group Had declined from 95.2% to 74.4%. The authors attributed the decline to the availability of better information on male non-therapeutic circumcision. The authors suggested that the practice of male circumcision is in steep decline in South Korea.<ref name="kim2012">{{REFjournal | ||
|last=Kim | |last=Kim | ||
| − | |first= | + | |first=Dai Sik |
| − | |init= | + | |init=DS |
| − | |last2=Pang | + | |author-link=Dai Sik Kim |
| − | | | + | |last2=Koo |
| − | | | + | |first2=Sung-Ae |
| − | |title= | + | |init2=SA |
| − | |journal= | + | |author2-link= |
| − | |volume= | + | |last3=Pang |
| − | |issue= | + | |first3=Myung-Geol |
| − | |pages= | + | |init3=MG |
| − | |url=https:// | + | |author3-link= |
| + | |etal=no | ||
| + | |title=Decline in male circumcision in South Korea | ||
| + | |trans-title= | ||
| + | |language= | ||
| + | |journal=BMC Public Health | ||
| + | |location= | ||
| + | |date=2012-12-11 | ||
| + | |volume=12 | ||
| + | |issue= | ||
| + | |article= | ||
| + | |page=1067 | ||
| + | |pages= | ||
| + | |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3526493/ | ||
| + | |archived= | ||
|quote= | |quote= | ||
| − | |pubmedID= | + | |pubmedID=23227923 |
|pubmedCID= | |pubmedCID= | ||
| − | |DOI=10. | + | |DOI=10.1186/1471-2458-12-1067 |
| − | |date= | + | |accessdate=2012-01 |
| − | |accessdate= | + | }}</ref> |
| + | |||
| + | The percentage of males [[circumcised]] in South Korea (prevalence) is reported to be 77%.<ref>{{REFweb | ||
| + | |url=https://circstatistics.github.io/ | ||
| + | |title=Global Circumcision Statistics and Estimates | ||
| + | |last= | ||
| + | |first= | ||
| + | |init= | ||
| + | |publisher=https://circstatistics.github.io | ||
| + | |date=2024-04-01 | ||
| + | |accessdate=2024-04-01 | ||
}}</ref> | }}</ref> | ||
| − | {{ | + | ==Constitutional and human rights issues== |
| + | ===Constitutional issues=== | ||
| + | The ''Constitution of the Republic of Korea'' (1948) as amended provides in Chapter Two the rights and duties of citizens.<ref name="ROKConstitution1948">{{REFdocument | ||
| + | |title=Constitution of the Republic of Korea | ||
| + | |url=https://elaw.klri.re.kr/eng_service/lawView.do?hseq=1&lang=ENG | ||
| + | |contribution= | ||
| + | |last= | ||
| + | |first= | ||
| + | |publisher=Korea Translation Center | ||
| + | |format= | ||
| + | |date=1948 | ||
| + | |accessdate=2021-06-08 | ||
| + | }}</ref> Some provisions may be applicable to the practice of non-therapeutic circumcision of minors. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Article 10 provides: | ||
| + | <blockquote> | ||
| + | All citizens shall be assured of human worth and dignity and have the right to pursuit of happiness. It shall be the duty of the State to confirm and guarantee the fundamental and inviolable [[human rights]] of individuals.<ref name="ROKConstitution1948"/> | ||
| + | </blockquote> | ||
| + | |||
| + | Article 34 provides: | ||
| + | <blockquote> | ||
| + | (1) All citizens shall be entitled to a life worthy of human beings.<br> | ||
| + | (2) The State shall have the duty to endeavor to promote social security and welfare.<br> | ||
| + | (3) The State shall endeavor to promote the welfare and rights of women.<br> | ||
| + | (4) The State shall have the duty to implement policies for enhancing the welfare of senior citizens and the young.<br> | ||
| + | (5) Citizens who are incapable of earning a livelihood due to a physical disability, disease, old age or other reasons shall be protected by the State under the conditions as prescribed by Act.<br> | ||
| + | (6) The State shall endeavor to prevent disasters and to protect citizens from harm therefrom.<ref name="ROKConstitution1948"/> | ||
| + | </blockquote> | ||
| + | |||
| + | Article 37 provides: | ||
| + | <blockquote> | ||
| + | (1) Freedoms and rights of citizens shall not be neglected on the grounds that they are not enumerated in the Constitution.<br> | ||
| + | (2) The freedoms and rights of citizens may be restricted by Act only when necessary for national security, the maintenance of law and order or for public welfare. Even when such restriction is imposed, no essential aspect of the freedom or right shall be violated.<ref name="ROKConstitution1948"/> | ||
| + | </blockquote> | ||
| + | |||
| + | There has been no attempt to apply these articles to the protection of boys' [[physical integrity]]. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ===Human rights issues=== | ||
| + | |||
| + | The General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the ''[[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]]'' (ICCPR) in December 1966.<ref name="lee1993">{{REFjournal | ||
| + | |last=Lee | ||
| + | |first=Suk Tae | ||
| + | |init=ST | ||
| + | |url=https://repository.law.umich.edu/mjil/vol14/iss4/3?utm_source=repository.law.umich.edu%2Fmjil%2Fvol14%2Fiss4%2F3&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages | ||
| + | |title=South Korea: Implementation and Application of Human Rights Covenants | ||
| + | |journal=MJIL | ||
| + | |volume=14 | ||
| + | |issue=705 | ||
| + | |date=1993 | ||
| + | |accessdate=2023-11-02 | ||
| + | }}.</ref> The Republic of Korea (South Korea) ratified this international [[human rights]] treaty in April 1990. Article 6(1) of the ''Constitution of the Republic of Korea'' provides that treaties "duly concluded and promulgated under the Constitution and the generally recognized rules of international law shall have the same effect as the domestic laws of the Republic of Korea."<ref name="ROKConstitution1948"/><ref name="lee1993" /> | ||
| + | |||
| + | Article 2(1) of the [[ICCPR]] provides: | ||
| + | <blockquote> | ||
| + | 1. Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the present Covenant, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. | ||
| + | </blockquote> | ||
| + | The [[ICCPR]] provides such rights as freedom from inhuman or degrading treatment, the right to liberty and security of person, and the right to such measures of protection as are required by his status as a minor, on the part of his family, society and the State.<ref name="iccpr1967">{{REFdocument | ||
| + | |title=International Covenant on Civil and Political Right | ||
| + | |url=https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/1976/03/19760323%2006-17%20AM/Ch_IV_04.pdf | ||
| + | |contribution= | ||
| + | |last= | ||
| + | |first= | ||
| + | |publisher=United Nations | ||
| + | |format=PDF | ||
| + | |date=1966 | ||
| + | |accessdate=2019-11-04 | ||
| + | }}</ref> South Korea has not protected the rights of boys as it has covenanted to do. If it had, any one of these enumerated rights would protect boys from non-therapeutic [[circumcision]] | ||
| + | {{SEEALSO}} | ||
| + | * [[Dai Sik Kim]] | ||
| + | * [[Intact South Korea]] | ||
| + | * [[Human rights]] | ||
| + | {{REF}} | ||
| + | [[Category:Male circumcision]] | ||
| + | [[Category:Human rights]] | ||
[[Category:Korea]] | [[Category:Korea]] | ||
Latest revision as of 14:20, 12 July 2024
South Korea, a traditionally non-circumcising nation, nevertheless, adopted the practice of non-therapeutic circumcision during and after the Korean War (1950-53). The adoption of circumcision may be traced to 1950, when the United States, which was then a nation devoted to circumcision, intervened in the Korean War (1950-53) and large numbers of mostly circumcised American troops, attended by mostly circumcised doctors in the American medical corp, were sent into South Korea to aid in its defense.[1]
Contents
South Korean practice
Recent introduction
It is believed that circumcision had been used in South Korea prior to the arrival of American forces in 1945 to treat phimosis.[2] A 1971 study of South Korean men who were being examined for military service found that only five percent of the men were circumcised. These men must have been born just before or during the Korean War, but were not circumcised, so this indicates that the onset of non-therapeutic circumcision is of more recent vintage.[3]
Concept of "naturally circumcised"
Korean men have invented several reasons that they do not need a surgical circumcision, such as their foreskin is short, that it retracts when they have an erection, that it is not phimosed, or other reasons. This is called "naturally circumcised".[1]
Usual age for circumcision
Most Korean males are circumcised not in infancy but at puberty, as teenagers or in their 20s, so it is now viewed as a "rite of passage". Circumcision in infancy is rare in South Korea.[1] Ku et al. (2003) reported "a positive attitude toward circumcision in South Korean men, linking it with hygienic practices." They also reported the decision to circumcise was most often made by parents.[4] The most usual age for circumcision is about age 12.[5]
Prevalence of circumcision
Kim et al (1999) carried out a survey of men in the Seoul area. They found that in the 16–25 year old age group 91 percent had been circumcised, with lesser percentages with increasing age groups.[1]
Results of large scale survey
Pang & Kim (2002) carried out a large scale survey of 5,434 males, aged 0–92, and 267 practicing physicians to learn more about the effects of male circumcision in South Korea. The authors observed that South Korea is the only nation in the region where non-therapeutic circumcision of boys is practiced.[6]
Incidence and prevalence
The incidence of circumcision was found to exceed 100 percent, since the number of older males being circumcised, exceeded the birth rate.[6]
The prevalence of circumcision was 93 percent in the 20-year-old age group and 60 percent over all ages.[6]
Complaints
Of the 593 men who had had sex prior to their circumcision, 20 percent had a change in sexuality. Men were "twice as likely to have experienced diminished sexuality than improved sexuality."[6]
Reports from medical doctors
Of the doctors surveyed, 41 percent performed circumcisions. General surgeons and urologists were most likely to perform circumcisions. Unlike America, only 28 percent of obstetricians did circumcisions and no paediatricians performed circumcisions. Doctors generally were poorly informed about circumcision.[6]
Medical research
Kim & Pang (2007) studied the effect of the foreskin on masturbation. They reported that masturbatory pleasure decreased in 48% of the respondents and increased in 8%, while difficulty increased in 63% but was easier in 37%. They concluded that there was a decrease in masturbatory pleasure after circumcision.[7]
Declining rate of male circumcision reported
Kim et al. (2012) reported a new survey carried out in 2010-11 that found a sharp decline in the incidence of circumcision. The circumcision rate in the age 14–16 age group had declined over a decade from 88.4% to 56.4%. The circumcision rate in the 17–19 age group Had declined from 95.2% to 74.4%. The authors attributed the decline to the availability of better information on male non-therapeutic circumcision. The authors suggested that the practice of male circumcision is in steep decline in South Korea.[8]
The percentage of males circumcised in South Korea (prevalence) is reported to be 77%.[9]
Constitutional and human rights issues
Constitutional issues
The Constitution of the Republic of Korea (1948) as amended provides in Chapter Two the rights and duties of citizens.[10] Some provisions may be applicable to the practice of non-therapeutic circumcision of minors.
Article 10 provides:
All citizens shall be assured of human worth and dignity and have the right to pursuit of happiness. It shall be the duty of the State to confirm and guarantee the fundamental and inviolable human rights of individuals.[10]
Article 34 provides:
(1) All citizens shall be entitled to a life worthy of human beings.
(2) The State shall have the duty to endeavor to promote social security and welfare.
(3) The State shall endeavor to promote the welfare and rights of women.
(4) The State shall have the duty to implement policies for enhancing the welfare of senior citizens and the young.
(5) Citizens who are incapable of earning a livelihood due to a physical disability, disease, old age or other reasons shall be protected by the State under the conditions as prescribed by Act.
(6) The State shall endeavor to prevent disasters and to protect citizens from harm therefrom.[10]
Article 37 provides:
(1) Freedoms and rights of citizens shall not be neglected on the grounds that they are not enumerated in the Constitution.
(2) The freedoms and rights of citizens may be restricted by Act only when necessary for national security, the maintenance of law and order or for public welfare. Even when such restriction is imposed, no essential aspect of the freedom or right shall be violated.[10]
There has been no attempt to apply these articles to the protection of boys' physical integrity.
Human rights issues
The General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) in December 1966.[11] The Republic of Korea (South Korea) ratified this international human rights treaty in April 1990. Article 6(1) of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea provides that treaties "duly concluded and promulgated under the Constitution and the generally recognized rules of international law shall have the same effect as the domestic laws of the Republic of Korea."[10][11]
Article 2(1) of the ICCPR provides:
1. Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the present Covenant, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.
The ICCPR provides such rights as freedom from inhuman or degrading treatment, the right to liberty and security of person, and the right to such measures of protection as are required by his status as a minor, on the part of his family, society and the State.[12] South Korea has not protected the rights of boys as it has covenanted to do. If it had, any one of these enumerated rights would protect boys from non-therapeutic circumcision
See also
References
- ↑ a b c d
Kim DS, Lee JY, Pang MG. Male circumcision: a South Korean perspective. BJU Int. January 1999; 83(Suppl 1): 28-33. PMID. DOI. Retrieved 6 June 2021.
- ↑
(9 February 2007)."The Whale Hunt", OHMY NEWS INTERNATIONAL. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
- ↑ Jung KM. A study on the foreskin and circumcision of the penis of Korean male. Korean J Public Health. 1971; 9: 369. Retrieved 6 June 2021.
- ↑ Ku JH, Kim ME, Lee NK, Park YH. Circumcision practice patterns in South Korea: community based survey. Sexually Transmitted Infections. 2003; 79(1): 65-7. PMID. PMC. DOI. Retrieved 7 June 2021.
- ↑ McKinney, Merritt (21 January 2002)."Korean Circumcision Rising, in Emulation of West", Reuters Health. Retrieved 7 June 2021.
Quote:It is clear that most South Korean doctors believe in the strong correlation between economic prosperity, medical advance and circumcision.
- ↑ a b c d e Pang MG, Kim DS. Extraordinarily high rates of male circumcision in South Korea: history and underlying causes. BJU Int. January 2002; 89(1): 48-54. PMID. Retrieved 7 May 2021.
- ↑ Kim DS, Pang MG. The effect of male circumcision on sexuality
. BJU Int. March 2007; 99(3): 619-622. PMID. DOI. Retrieved 4 November 2023.
- ↑ Kim DS, Koo SA, Pang MG. Decline in male circumcision in South Korea. BMC Public Health. 11 December 2012; 12: 1067. PMID. DOI. Retrieved January 2012.
- ↑
(1 April 2024). Global Circumcision Statistics and Estimates
, https://circstatistics.github.io. Retrieved 1 April 2024. - ↑ a b c d e
Constitution of the Republic of Korea, Korea Translation Center. (1948). Retrieved 8 June 2021.
- ↑ a b Lee ST. South Korea: Implementation and Application of Human Rights Covenants. MJIL. 1993; 14(705) Retrieved 2 November 2023..
- ↑ International Covenant on Civil and Political Right , United Nations. (1966). Retrieved 4 November 2019.
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