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Revision as of 02:42, 26 November 2021

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In males, circumcision consists of removing the prepuce of the penis (the foreskin). Circumcision is practiced on young Muslim boys (known as khitan) and on newborn Jewish infants (known as brit milah), as well as on non-Jewish or Muslim infants in the United States as a hospital procedure.[1][2] It used to be, but is no longer, a common procedure in Australia[3] and Canada.[4][5] Circumcision for cosmetic reasons is banned in public hospitals in Australia.[6]

The procedures of female genital mutilation (FGM) are significantly more extensive.[7] FGM has no medical benefits and can cause serious harm to women's physical and mental health, depending on the procedure and whether it was performed by traditional cutters or medical personnel.[8] Known until the early 1990s as "female circumcision", the World Health Organization (WHO) and other agencies began referring to it as "female genital mutilation" to remove any analogy to male circumcision.[9][7] It is outlawed around the world, including in many of the countries in which it is most heavily concentrated.[10] Found mainly in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East, the practice is divided by the WHO into four types:[8]

  • Type 1 (clitoridectomy) is the partial or total removal of the clitoral glans; "in very rare cases", according to the WHO, it involves removal of the clitoral hood only (the prepuce, or skin around the clitoral glans).
  • Type 2 (excision) is the partial or total removal of the clitoral glans, inner labia, and sometimes the outer labia.
  • Type 3 (infibulation) is the removal of the inner and outer labia and the creation of a seal over the vagina by stitching the two sides or by otherwise allowing them to bond, leaving a small hole for the passage of urine and menstrual blood; this is performed with and without clitoridectomy.
  • Type 4 is "all other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes, e.g. pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and cauterizing the genital area".[8]


Table

'Prevalence of genital cutting by sex, age and country'[Notes 1]


Country Male Female
0-14 15+ Banned 0-14[Notes 2] 15+ Banned
Afghanistan [11] 98
 .1 [12] 99
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Albania [12] 31
 .5 [12] 36
 .8 No N/A N/A Yes
Algeria 97
 .9 [13] 97
 .9 No [14] 0 [14] 0 Yes
American Samoa 95 [13] 95 No N/A N/A Yes
Andorra 1
 .1 [13] 1
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Angola [12] 96
 .1 [12] 96
 .2 No N/A N/A Yes
Anguilla 0
 .3 [13] 0
 .3 No N/A N/A Yes
Antigua and Barbuda 0
 .6 [13] 0
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Argentina 2
 .9 [13] 2
 .9 No N/A N/A Yes
Armenia 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Aruba 0
 .46 [13] 0
 .46 No N/A N/A Yes
Australia [15][16][17] 15
 .9 [18] 58 No N/A N/A Yes
Austria 5
 .8 [13] 5
 .8 No N/A N/A Yes
Azerbaijan 96
 .9 [12] 96
 .9 No N/A N/A Yes
Bahamas 0
 .2 [13] 0
 .2 No N/A N/A Yes
Bahrain 81
 .2 [13] 81
 .2 No N/A N/A Yes
Bangladesh 93
 .2 [19] 93
 .2 No N/A N/A Yes
Barbados 0
 .9 [13] 0
 .9 No N/A N/A Yes
Belarus 0
 .32 [13] 0
 .32 No N/A N/A Yes
Belgium 22
 .6 [20] 22
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Belize 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Benin [12] 95
 .5 [12] 94
 .7 No [21] 0
 .2 [21] 9 Yes
Bermuda 0
 .8 [13] 0
 .8 No N/A N/A Yes
Bhutan 1
 .0 [13] 1
 .0 No N/A N/A Yes
Bolivia 0
 .11 [13] 0
 .11 No N/A N/A Yes
Bosnia and Herzegovina 41
 .6 [13] 41
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Botswana 15
 .1 [22][23] 15
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Brazil 1
 .3 [24] 1
 .3 No N/A N/A Yes
British Virgin Islands 1
 .2 [13] 1
 .2 No N/A N/A Yes
Brunei 51
 .9 [13] 51
 .9 No N/A N/A Yes
Bulgaria 13
 .4 [13] 13
 .4 No N/A N/A Yes
Burkina Faso [12] 85
 .1 [12] 88
 .7 No [21] 13 [21] 76 Yes
Burundi [12] 19
 .3 [12] 41
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Cabo Verde 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Cambodia 2
 .1 [12] 2
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Cameroon [12] 94
 .9 [12] 94 No [12] 1
 .5 [21] 1 Yes
Canada 31
 .9 [25] 31
 .9 No N/A N/A Yes
Cayman Islands 0
 .2 [13] 0
 .2 No N/A N/A Yes
Central African Republic 63
 .0 [26] 63
 .0 No [21] 1 [21] 24 Yes
Chad 96
 .5 [12] 96
 .5 No [21] 10 [21] 38 Yes
Chile 0
 .2 [13] 0
 .21 No N/A N/A Yes
China 14
 .0 [27] 14
 .0 No N/A N/A Yes
Christmas Island 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Cocos Islands 95 [13] 95 No N/A N/A Yes
Colombia 1
 .5 [28] 1
 .5 No [29] 0
 .47 [29] 0
 .47 Yes
Comoros [12] 100
 .0 [12] 99
 .5 No [30] 0 [30] 0 Yes
Congo, Democratic Republic of [12] 95
 .2 [12] 97
 .2 No N/A N/A Yes
Congo, Republic of [12] 100
 .0 [12] 99
 .2 No N/A N/A Yes
Cook Islands 95 [13] 95 No N/A N/A Yes
Costa Rica 0
 .15 [13] 0
 .15 No N/A N/A Yes
Côte d'Ivoire [12] 94
 .0 [12] 96
 .7 No [21] 10 [21] 37 Yes
Croatia 1
 .34 [13] 1
 .34 No N/A N/A Yes
Cuba 0
 .11 [13] 0
 .11 No N/A N/A Yes
Curacao 0
 .07 [13] 0
 .07 No N/A N/A Yes
Cyprus 22
 .7 [13] 22
 .7 No N/A N/A Yes
Czech Republic 0
 .14 [13] 0
 .14 No N/A N/A Yes
Denmark 5
 .3 [31][32] 5
 .3 No N/A N/A Yes
Djibouti 96
 .5 [26] 96
 .5 No [21] 49 [21] 93 Yes
Dominica 0
 .2 [13] 0
 .2 No N/A N/A Yes
Dominican Republic 12
 .7 [12] 12
 .7 No N/A N/A Yes
Ecuador 0
 .11 [13] 0
 .11 No N/A N/A Yes
Egypt 94
 .7 [13] 94
 .7 No [21] 14 [21] 87 Yes
El Salvador 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Equatorial Guinea 87 [33] 87 No N/A N/A Yes
Eritrea 97
 .2 [26] 97
 .2 No [21] 33 [21] 83 Yes
Estonia 0
 .25 [13] 0
 .25 No N/A N/A Yes
Ethiopia [12] 94
 .7 [12] 91
 .7 No [21] 16 [21] 65 Yes
Falkland Islands 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Faroe Islands 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Fiji 55 [13] 55 No N/A N/A Yes
Finland 3
 .0 [34] 3
 .0 No N/A N/A Yes
France 14 [13] 14 No N/A N/A Yes
French Polynesia 78 [13] 78 No N/A N/A Yes
Gabon [12] 100
 .0 [12] 99
 .2 No N/A N/A Yes
Gambia 94
 .5 [26] 94
 .5 No [21] 56 [21] 75 Yes
Palestine 99
 .9 [13] 99
 .9 No N/A N/A Yes
Georgia 10
 .6 [13] 10
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Germany [35] 10
 .9 [36] 6
 .7 No N/A N/A Yes
Ghana [12] 94
 .2 [12] 95
 .6 No [21] 1 [21] 4 Yes
Gibraltar 6 [13] 6 No N/A N/A Yes
Greece 4
 .7 [13] 4
 .7 No N/A N/A Yes
Greenland 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Grenada 0
 .3 [13] 0
 .3 No N/A N/A Yes
Guam 95 [13] 95 No N/A N/A Yes
Guatemala 2
 .9 [12] 2
 .9 No N/A N/A Yes
Guernsey 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Guinea [12] 98
 .5 [12] 99
 .0 No [21] 45 [21] 97 Yes
Guinea-Bissau 93
 .3 [26] 93
 .3 No [21] 29 [21] 45 Yes
Guyana 12
 .1 [12] 12
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Haiti [12] 8
 .4 [12] 7
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Holy See 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Honduras 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Hong Kong 28 [37] 28 No N/A N/A Yes
Hungary 0
 .8 [13] 0
 .8 No N/A N/A Yes
Iceland 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
India 15
 .7 [12] 15
 .7 No N/A N/A Yes
Indonesia 92
 .5 [33] 92
 .5 No [21] 49 [38] 95
 .1 Yes
Iran 99
 .7 [13] 99
 .7 No N/A N/A Yes
Iraq 98
 .9 [13] 98
 .9 No [21] 3 [21] 8 Yes
Ireland 0
 .9 [13] 0
 .9 No N/A N/A Yes
Isle of Man 0
 .2 [13] 0
 .2 No N/A N/A Yes
Israel 91
 .7 [13] 91
 .7 No N/A N/A Yes
Italy 2
 .6 [13] 2
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Jamaica 14
 .0 [39] 14
 .0 No N/A N/A Yes
Japan 9
 .0 [40] 9
 .0 No N/A N/A Yes
Jersey 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Jordan 98
 .8 [13] 98
 .8 No N/A N/A Yes
Kazakhstan 56
 .4 [13] 56
 .4 No N/A N/A Yes
Kenya [12] 91
 .0 [12] 92
 .6 No [21] 3 [21] 21 Yes
Kiribati 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
North Korea 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
South Korea [41] 22
 .2 [41] 81
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Kosovo 91
 .7 [13] 91
 .7 No N/A N/A Yes
Kuwait 86
 .4 [13] 86
 .4 No N/A N/A Yes
Kyrgyzstan 91
 .9 [12] 91
 .9 No N/A N/A Yes
Laos 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Latvia 0
 .4 [13] 0
 .4 No N/A N/A Yes
Lebanon 59
 .7 [13] 59
 .7 No N/A N/A Yes
Lesotho [12] 70
 .4 [12] 72
 .3 No N/A N/A Yes
Liberia 99
 .1 [12] 99
 .1 No N/A [21] 44 Yes
Libya 96
 .6 [13] 96
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Liechtenstein 4
 .8 [13] 4
 .8 No N/A N/A Yes
Lithuania 0
 .2 [13] 0
 .2 No N/A N/A Yes
Luxembourg 2
 .4 [13] 2
 .4 No N/A N/A Yes
Macau 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
North Macedonia 33
 .9 [13] 33
 .9 No N/A N/A Yes
Madagascar [12] 95
 .5 [12] 94
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Malawi [12] 30
 .0 [12] 28
 .0 No N/A N/A Yes
Malaysia 61
 .4 [13] 61
 .4 No N/A N/A Yes
Maldives 98
 .4 [13] 98
 .4 No [12] 13
 .4 [12] 18
 .5 Yes
Mali 97
 .8 [12] 97
 .8 No [21] 73 [21] 83 No
Malta 0
 .3 [13] 0
 .3 No N/A N/A Yes
Marshall Islands 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Mauritania 99
 .2 [26] 99
 .2 No [21] 51 [21] 67 Yes
Mauritius 16
 .6 [13] 16
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Mexico 15
 .4 [42] 15
 .4 No N/A N/A Yes
Micronesia 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Moldova [12] 0
 .5 [12] 0
 .9 No N/A N/A Yes
Monaco 0
 .5 [13] 0
 .5 No N/A N/A Yes
Mongolia 4
 .4 [13] 4
 .4 No N/A N/A Yes
Montenegro 18
 .5 [13] 18
 .5 No N/A N/A Yes
Montserrat 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Morocco 99
 .9 [13] 99
 .9 No N/A N/A Yes
Mozambique [12] 64
 .5 [12] 62
 .7 No N/A N/A Yes
Myanmar 3
 .9 [12] 3
 .9 No N/A N/A Yes
Namibia [12] 31
 .4 [12] 26
 .5 No N/A N/A Yes
Nauru 95
 .0 [13] 95
 .0 No N/A N/A Yes
Nepal 4
 .2 [13] 4
 .2 No N/A N/A Yes
Netherlands 5
 .7 [13] 5
 .7 No N/A N/A Yes
New Caledonia 50
 .0 [13] 50
 .0 No N/A N/A Yes
New Zealand [43] 10
 .0 [44] 33
 .0 No N/A N/A Yes
Nicaragua 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Niger 99
 .4 [12] 99
 .4 No [12] 1
 .2 [21] 2 Yes
Nigeria 98
 .9 [12] 98
 .9 No [21] 13 [21] 18 Yes
Niue 95 [13] 95 No N/A N/A Yes
Norfolk Island 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Northern Mariana Islands 90 [13] 90 No N/A N/A Yes
Norway 3
 .0 [13] 3
 .0 No N/A N/A Yes
Oman 87
 .7 [13] 87
 .7 No N/A N/A Yes
Pakistan 96
 .4 [13] 96
 .4 No N/A N/A Yes
Palau 95 [13] 95 No N/A N/A Yes
Panama 1
 .0 [13] 1
 .0 No N/A N/A Yes
Papua New Guinea 10
 .1 [13] 10
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Paraguay 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Peru 3
 .7 [13] 3
 .7 No N/A N/A Yes
Philippines 91
 .7 [13] 91
 .7 No N/A N/A Yes
Pitcairn Islands 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Poland 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Portugal 0
 .6 [13] 0
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Puerto Rico 0
 .14 [13] 0
 .14 No N/A N/A Yes
Qatar 77
 .5 [13] 77
 .5 No N/A N/A Yes
Romania 0
 .3 [13] 0
 .3 No N/A N/A Yes
Russia 11
 .8 [13] 11
 .8 No N/A N/A Yes
Rwanda [12] 11
 .9 [12] 27
 .7 No N/A N/A Yes
Saint Barthelemy 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Saint Helena 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Saint Kitts 0
 .3 [13] 0
 .3 No N/A N/A Yes
Saint Lucia 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Saint Martin 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Saint Pierre 0
 .2 [13] 0
 .2 No N/A N/A Yes
Saint Vincent 1
 .7 [13] 1
 .7 No N/A N/A Yes
Samoa 95 [13] 95 No N/A N/A Yes
San Marino 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Sao Tome and Principe 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Saudi Arabia 97
 .1 [13] 97
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Senegal 98
 .2 [12] 98
 .2 No [21] 14 [21] 23 Yes
Serbia 3
 .7 [13] 3
 .7 No N/A N/A Yes
Seychelles 1
 .1 [13] 1
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Sierra Leone 99
 .4 [12] 99
 .4 No [21] 8 [21] 86 No
Singapore 14
 .9 [13] 14
 .9 No N/A N/A Yes
Sint Maarten 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Slovakia 0
 .2 [13] 0
 .15 No N/A N/A Yes
Slovenia 8
 .5 [45] 8
 .5 No N/A N/A Yes
Solomon Islands 95 [13] 95 No N/A N/A Yes
Somalia 93
 .5 [46][47] 93
 .5 No [21] 46 [21] 98 Yes
South Africa [12] 45
 .5 [12] 55
 .2 No N/A N/A Yes
South Sudan 23
 .6 [48][49] 23
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Spain 6
 .6 [13] 6
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Sri Lanka 8
 .5 [13] 8
 .5 No N/A N/A Yes
Sudan 39
 .4 [46][26] 39
 .4 No [21] 30 [21] 87 No
Suriname 15
 .9 [13] 15
 .9 No N/A N/A Yes
Svalbard 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Swaziland 8
 .6 [12] 8
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Sweden 5
 .1 [13] 5
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Switzerland 5
 .9 [13] 5
 .9 No N/A N/A Yes
Syria 92
 .8 [13] 92
 .8 No N/A N/A Yes
Taiwan 8
 .3 [50] 8
 .3 No N/A N/A Yes
Tajikistan 99 [13] 99 No N/A N/A Yes
Tanzania 80
 .4 [12] 80
 .4 No [21] 0
 .4 [21] 10 Yes
Thailand 11
 .9 [51] 11
 .9 No N/A N/A Yes
Timor-Leste [12] 6
 .9 [12] 9
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Togo [12] 98
 .7 [12] 97
 .8 No [21] 0
 .3 [21] 5 Yes
Tokelau 95 [13] 95 No N/A N/A Yes
Tonga 95 [13] 95 No N/A N/A Yes
Trinidad and Tobago 5
 .8 [13] 5
 .8 No N/A N/A Yes
Tunisia 99
 .8 [13] 99
 .8 No N/A N/A Yes
Turkey 98
 .6 [13] 98
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Turkmenistan 93
 .4 [13] 93
 .4 No N/A N/A Yes
Turks and Caicos Islands 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Tuvalu 95 [13] 95 No N/A N/A Yes
Uganda [12] 33
 .2 [12] 45
 .3 No [21] 1 [21] 0 Yes
Ukraine 2
 .2 [12] 2
 .2 No N/A N/A Yes
United Arab Emirates 76
 .0 [13] 76
 .0 No N/A N/A Yes
United Kingdom [52][53] 3
 .0 [54][55] 8
 .5 No N/A N/A Yes
United States [56] 52
 .1 [57] 80
 .5 No N/A N/A Yes
Uruguay 0
 .62 [13] 0
 .62 No N/A N/A Yes
Uzbekistan 96
 .5 [13] 96
 .5 No N/A N/A Yes
Vanuatu 95
 .0 [13] 95
 .0 No N/A N/A Yes
Venezuela 0
 .3 [13] 0
 .3 No N/A N/A Yes
Vietnam 0
 .2 [13] 0
 .2 No N/A N/A Yes
United States Virgin Islands 0
 .6 [13] 0
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Wallis and Futuna 0
 .1 [13] 0
 .1 No N/A N/A Yes
Western Sahara 99
 .6 [13] 99
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Yemen 99
 .0 [13] 99
 .0 No [12] 18
 .5 [21] 19 Yes
Zambia [12] 18
 .3 [12] 21
 .6 No N/A N/A Yes
Zimbabwe [12] 14
 .3 [12] 14
 .0 No N/A N/A Yes

Notes

  1. ↑ Mostly all international data, including that republished by the other two most cited sources here, Morris et al. (2016) and UNICEF, for circumcision and FGM respectively, is from USAID's Demographic and Health Surveys. Wherever possible, the primary, rather than the secondary, source is cited. The prevalence rates reflect the most recent surveys available, and are adjusted for sample biases against age distributions. Cells aggregating data across sexes and ages are without citation and are estimated from segmented data along with each country's age distributions and sex ratio. Data missing or unavailable for FGM is denoted by data-sort-value="" style="background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center; " class="table-na" | N/A. Data without citation for prevalence of circumcision among boys aged 0–14 is copied from sourced data for males aged 15 and older, as mostly all ritual circumcisions are done either in childhood, right before puberty (e.g. Islam) or days after birth (e.g. Islam and Judaism).
  2. ↑ Figures as reported by the children's mothers.

References

  1. ↑ REFjournal Wiswell TE, Bailis SA, Morris BJ. Circumcision Rates in the United States: Rising or Falling? What Effect Might the New Affirmative Pediatric Policy Statement Have?. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 1 May 2014; 89(5): 677–686. PMID. DOI.
  2. ↑ REFweb (1 June 2019). Products - Health E Stats - Trends in Circumcision Among Male Newborns Born in U.S. Hospitals: 1979–2010, www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 31 August 2019.
  3. ↑ REFweb Australian circumcision statistics | Circinfo.org, www.circinfo.org. Retrieved 31 August 2019.
  4. ↑ REFnews (23 March 2006)."Rates of circumcision slashed in past 30 years", The Gazette, Montreal. Retrieved 20 April 2021.
  5. ↑ REFnews MacDonald, Andrea (25 March 2006)."N.S. circumcisions continue to drop: Province has second-lowest rate in the country". Retrieved 20 April 2021.
  6. ↑ REFnews Press, Australian Associated (9 February 2017)."Protection offered by circumcision does not warrant lifting ban, say doctors". Retrieved 1 June 2019.
  7. ↑ a b REFbook Sex and Social Justice. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. P. 119. ISBN 9780195355017.
  8. ↑ a b c REFweb Female genital mutilation, World Health Organization. Retrieved 1 June 2019.
  9. ↑ REFbook Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Statistical Overview and Exploration of the Dynamics of Change. New York: United Nations Children's Fund. Pp. 6–7.
  10. ↑ UNICEF 2013, pp. 8-9
  11. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-1
  12. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :0
  13. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm cn co cp cq cr cs ct cu cv cw cx cy cz da db dc dd de df dg dh di dj dk dl dm dn do dp dq dr ds dt du dv dw dx dy dz ea eb ec ed ee ef eg eh ei ej ek el em en eo ep eq er es et eu ev ew ex ey Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :3
  14. ↑ a b REFweb Female genital mutilation: Algeria, Andorra, Angola, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Archive.ipu.org. Retrieved 28 August 2019.
  15. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-2
  16. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-3
  17. ↑ REFweb The 1 November 2016 MBS (XML, PDF, DOC, ZIP) files are now available to download, Australian Government Department of Health. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
  18. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-4
  19. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-5
  20. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-6
  21. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :8
  22. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-7
  23. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :4
  24. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-8
  25. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :6
  26. ↑ a b c d e f g Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :2
  27. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-9
  28. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-10
  29. ↑ a b REFnews (6 February 2015)."Colombia's Embera tribe hopes to eradicate FGM by 2030", Reuters. Retrieved 11 October 2019.
  30. ↑ a b UK Border Agency, p. 20
  31. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-11
  32. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-12
  33. ↑ a b Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :1
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  35. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-14
  36. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-15
  37. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-16
  38. ↑ REFweb Female Circumcision in Indonesia, usaid.gov, United States Agency for International Development. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
  39. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-17
  40. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-18
  41. ↑ a b Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-19
  42. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :5
  43. ↑ REFbook A guide for parents. Sydney, Australia: The Royal Australasian College of Physicians.
    Quote: There are fewer boys being circumcised in Australia and New Zealand in recent years than in the past. Currently, only 10-20% of boys in Australia and less than 10 % of boys in New Zealand are circumcised.
  44. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-20
  45. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-21
  46. ↑ a b Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named auto3
  47. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named auto4
  48. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-22
  49. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-23
  50. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :7
  51. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-24
  52. ↑ REFjournal Cathcart P, Nuttall M, van der Meulen J, Emberton M, Kenny SE. Trends in paediatric circumcision and its complications in England between 1997 and 2003. BJS. 2006; 93(7): 885–890. PMID. DOI.
  53. ↑ REFweb (4 August 2019). Circumcision in boys, NCT (National Childbirth Trust). Retrieved 14 October 2019.
  54. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-27
  55. ↑ REFweb (4 August 2019). Circumcision in boys, NCT (National Childbirth Trust). Retrieved 14 October 2019.
  56. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-28
  57. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Auto22-29

[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]


Abbreviations

  1. ↑ REFweb The DHS Program - Data, www.dhsprogram.com.
  2. ↑ REFjournal ICF, Health/Afghanistan, Ministry of Public, Organization/Afghanistan, Central Statistics. Afghanistan Demographic and Health Survey 2015 1 January 2017;
  3. ↑ REFjournal Morris BJ, Wamai RG, Henebeng EB, Tobian AAR, Klausner JD, Banerjee J, Hankins CA. Erratum to: Estimation of country-specific and global prevalence of male circumcision. Population Health Metrics. 4 April 2016; 14: 11. PMID. PMC. DOI.
  4. ↑ REFweb Medicare Australia - Statistics - Medicare Benefits Schedule (MBS) Item Statistics, medicarestatistics.humanservices.gov.au. Retrieved 30 May 2019.
  5. ↑ REFweb (31 May 2019). Population, www.abs.gov.au, Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 31 May 2019.
  6. ↑ REFjournal Ferris JA, Richters J, Pitts MK, Shelley JM, Simpson JM, Ryall R, Smith AMA. Circumcision in Australia: further evidence on its effects on sexual health and wellbeing. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health. April 2010; 34(2): 160–164. PMID. DOI.
  7. ↑ REFjournal Sabin KM, Rahman M, Hawkes S, Ahsan K, Begum L, Black RE, Baqui AH. Sexually transmitted infections prevalence rates in slum communities of Dhaka, Bangladesh. International Journal of STD & AIDS. September 2003; 14(9): 614–621. PMID. DOI.
  8. ↑ REFjournal Bronselaer GA, Schober JM, Meyer-Bahlburg HFL, T'Sjoen G, Vlietinck R, Hoebeke PB. Male circumcision decreases penile sensitivity as measured in a large cohort. BJU International. May 2013; 111(5): 820–827. PMID. DOI.
  9. ↑ REFweb Female genital mutilation, UNICEF DATA. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
  10. ↑ REFjournal Ayiga N, Letamo G. Impact of male circumcision on HIV risk compensation through the impediment of condom use in Botswana. African Health Sciences. December 2011; 11(4): 550–559. PMID. PMC.
  11. ↑ REFjournal Andersson N, Cockcroft A. Male circumcision, attitudes to HIV prevention and HIV status: a cross-sectional study in Botswana, Namibia and Swaziland. AIDS Care. 2012; 24(3): 301–309. PMID. PMC. DOI.
  12. ↑ REFjournal Korkes F, Silva JL, Pompeo ACL. Circumcisions for medical reasons in the Brazilian public health system: epidemiology and trends. Einstein (Sao Paulo, Brazil). July 2012; 10(3): 342–346. PMID. DOI.
  13. ↑ Public Health Agency of Canada. What Mothers Say. Data Tables to The Maternity Experiences Survey (MES) 2006–2007. Table 38. 2011. p.267.
  14. ↑ REFjournal Williams BG, Lloyd-Smith JO, Gouws E, Hankins, Catherine, Getz WM, Hargrove J, de Zoysa I, Dye C, Auvert B. The potential impact of male circumcision on HIV in Sub-Saharan Africa. PLoS Medicine. July 2006; 3(7): e262. PMID. PMC. DOI.
  15. ↑ REFjournal Sullivan SG, Ma W, Duan S, Li F, Wu Z, Detels R. Attitudes towards circumcision among Chinese men. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 1 February 2009; 50(2): 238–240. PMID. DOI.
  16. ↑ REFjournal Castellsagué X, Bosch FX, Muñoz N, Meijer CJLM, Shah KV, de Sanjose S, Eluf-Neto J, Ngelangel CA, Chichareon S. Male circumcision, penile human papillomavirus infection, and cervical cancer in female partners. The New England Journal of Medicine. 11 April 2002; 346(15): 1105–1112. PMID. DOI.
  17. ↑ REFjournal Svare EI, Kjaer SK, Worm AM, Osterlind A, Meijer CJLM, van den Brule AJC. Risk factors for genital HPV DNA in men resemble those found in women: a study of male attendees at a Danish STD clinic. Sexually Transmitted Infections. June 2002; 78(3): 215–218. PMID. PMC. DOI.
  18. ↑ REFjournal Frisch M, Lindholm M, Grønbæk M. Male circumcision and sexual function in men and women: a survey-based, cross-sectional study in Denmark. Int J Epidemiol. 14 June 2011; 40(5): 1367-81. PMID. DOI. Retrieved 26 September 2021.
  19. ↑ REFbook Timberg, Craig, Halperin, Daniel: Tinderbox: how the West sparked the AIDS epidemic and how the world can finally overcome it. (English). New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 9780143123002.
  20. ↑ REFjournal Kolehmainen M, Taskinen S, Ossi L. [Foreskin surgery]. Duodecim; Laaketieteellinen Aikakauskirja. 2010; 126(1): 75–83. PMID.
  21. ↑ REFjournal Kamtsiuris P, Bergmann E, Rattay P, Schlaud M. [Use of medical services. Results of the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents (KiGGS)]. Bundesgesundheitsblatt, Gesundheitsforschung, Gesundheitsschutz. May 2007; 50(5–6): 836–850. PMID. DOI.
  22. ↑ REFjournal Hoschke B, Fenske S, Brookman-May S, Spivak I, Gilfrich C, Fritsche HM, Wolff I, May M. [Male circumcision is not associated with an increased prevalence of erectile dysfunction: results of the Cottbus 10,000-men survey]. Der Urologe. Ausg. A. April 2013; 52(4): 562–569. PMID. DOI.
  23. ↑ REFjournal Wang Z, Lau JTF, Gu J. Acceptability of circumcision among clients of female sex worker in Hong Kong. AIDS and Behavior. October 2012; 16(7): 1836–1845. PMID. DOI.
  24. ↑ REFjournal Walcott MM, Jolly PE, Ehiri JE, Funkhouser E, Kempf MC, Hickman D, Aung M, Zhang K. Factors associated with the acceptability of male circumcision among men in Jamaica. PLOS ONE. 2013; 8(9): e75074. PMID. PMC. DOI.
  25. ↑ REFjournal Yamagishi T, Imai H, Nakao H, Yahata Y, Iizuka N, Onoye Y, Koichi U, Misaki H, Takaaki O. Inter-rater reliability of self-reported response on foreskin status in questionnaire among Japanese adult men. Sexually Transmitted Infections. November 2012; 88(7): 534–538. PMID. DOI.
  26. ↑ REFjournal Kim D, Koo SA, Pang MG. Decline in male circumcision in South Korea. BMC Public Health. 11 December 2012; 12: 1067. PMID. PMC. DOI.
  27. ↑ REFjournal Albero G, Castellsagué X, Lin HY, Fulp W, Villa LL, Lazcano-Ponce E, Papenfuss M, Abrahamsen M, Salmerón J. Male circumcision and the incidence and clearance of genital human papillomavirus (HPV) infection in men: the HPV Infection in men (HIM) cohort study. BMC Infectious Diseases. 10 February 2014; 14: 75. PMID. PMC. DOI.
  28. ↑ REFjournal Fergusson DM, Boden JM, Horwood LJ. Circumcision status and risk of sexually transmitted infection in young adult males: an analysis of a longitudinal birth cohort. Pediatrics. November 2006; 118(5): 1971–1977. PMID. DOI.
  29. ↑ REFjournal Klavs I, Hamers FF. Male circumcision in Slovenia: results from a national probability sample survey. Sexually Transmitted Infections. February 2008; 84(1): 49–50. PMID. DOI.
  30. ↑ REFweb Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. Behavioural Surveillance Surveys Among Refugees and Surrounding Host Population, Kakuma, Kenya, UNHCR. Retrieved 29 May 2019.
  31. ↑ REFweb Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. HIV Behavioural Surveillance Survey in Dadaab Refugee Camps, Kenya, UNHCR. Retrieved 29 May 2019.
  32. ↑ REFweb HIV Behavioural Surveillance Survey Juba Municipality, South Sudan Icons-mini-file pdf.svg, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
  33. ↑ REFweb HIV Behavioural Surveillance Survey in Kajo Keji County, Central Equatoria State, Southern Sudan Icons-mini-file pdf.svg, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
  34. ↑ REFjournal Ko MC, Liu CK, Lee WK, Jeng HS, Chiang HS, Li CY. Age-specific prevalence rates of phimosis and circumcision in Taiwanese boys. Journal of the Formosan Medical Association = Taiwan Yi Zhi. April 2007; 106(4): 302–307. PMID. DOI.
  35. ↑ REFjournal Tieu HV, Phanuphak N, Ananworanich J, Vatanparast R, Jadwattanakul T, Pharachetsakul N, Mingkwanrungrueng P, Buajoom R, Teeratakulpisarn S. Acceptability of male circumcision for the prevention of HIV among high-risk heterosexual men in Thailand. Sexually Transmitted Diseases. June 2010; 37(6): 352–355. PMID. DOI.
  36. ↑ REFjournal Homfray V, Tanton C, Mitchell KR, Miller RF, Field N, Macdowall W, Wellings K, Sonnenberg P, Johnson AM. Examining the association between male circumcision and sexual function: evidence from a British probability survey. AIDS (London, England). 17 July 2015; 29(11): 1411–1416. PMID. PMC. DOI.
  37. ↑ REFjournal Hart-Cooper GD, Tao G, Stock JA, Hoover KW. Circumcision of privately insured males aged 0 to 18 years in the United States. Pediatrics. November 2014; 134(5): 950–956. PMID. DOI.
  38. ↑ REFjournal Introcaso CE, Xu F, Kilmarx PH, Zaidi A, Markowitz LE. Prevalence of circumcision among men and boys aged 14 to 59 years in the United States, National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys 2005-2010. Sexually Transmitted Diseases. July 2013; 40(7): 521–525. PMC. DOI.
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