Difference between revisions of "Infection"

From IntactiWiki
Jump to navigation Jump to search
(→‎Circumcision infection)
(Add section.)
 
(19 intermediate revisions by 2 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
−
{{Construction Site}}
+
[[File:Dit del peu gros infectat.jpg|thumb|Infection of an ingrown toenail; there is pus (yellow) and resultant inflammation (redness and swelling around the nail).]]
 
'''Infection''' is invasion of the body by organisms (pathogens) that have the potential to cause disease. The pathogen may be bacterial, fungal, or viral.<ref>{{REFweb
 
'''Infection''' is invasion of the body by organisms (pathogens) that have the potential to cause disease. The pathogen may be bacterial, fungal, or viral.<ref>{{REFweb
 
  |url=https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/infection
 
  |url=https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/infection
−
|archived=
 
 
  |title=Infection
 
  |title=Infection
−
|trans-title=
 
−
|language=
 
−
|last=
 
−
|first=
 
−
|author-link=
 
 
  |publisher=The Free Dictionary
 
  |publisher=The Free Dictionary
−
|website=
 
 
  |date=2012
 
  |date=2012
 
  |accessdate=2022-01-08
 
  |accessdate=2022-01-08
−
|format=
 
−
|quote=
 
 
}}</ref>
 
}}</ref>
  
 +
The human [[foreskin]] has numerous functions that protect against infection.<ref name="cold-taylor1999">{{ColdCJ TaylorJR 1999}}</ref> Infection is a well-known possible complication of circumcision. [[Circumcised]] males have an increased risk of infection due to loss of the protective functions.
 
==Circumcision infection==
 
==Circumcision infection==
−
Circumcision is a surgical operation and [[amputation]] that creates an open surgical wound on the [[penis]]. The open wound does not heal immediately. For a period of time during and after the surgery it is subject to invasion by a wide variety of bacterial, viral, or fungal  pathogens.<ref name="williams1993">{{REFjournal
+
Neonatal [[circumcision]] is an elective, medically-unnecessary, non-therapeutic [[amputation]] of the healthy [[foreskin]] that is done only after parents sign a [[circumcision consent form]]. It exposes an infant to surgical risks, but does not treat or prevent disease.<ref name="deacon2022">{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Deacon
 +
|first=Matthew
 +
|init=M
 +
|author-link=
 +
|last2=Muir
 +
|first2=Gordon
 +
|init2=G
 +
|author2-link=
 +
|etal=no
 +
|title=What is the medical evidence on non-therapeutic child circumcision?
 +
|journal= Int J Impot Res
 +
|date=2022-01-08
 +
|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41443-021-00502-y
 +
|pubmedID=34997197
 +
|DOI=10.1038/s41443-021-00502-y
 +
|accessdate=2022-02-02
 +
}}</ref> Circumcision is a surgical operation and [[amputation]] that creates an open surgical wound on the [[penis]]. [[Rosemary Romberg]] (2021) described infection as a "fairly common complication."<ref name="romberg2021">{{REFbook
 +
|last=Romberg
 +
|first=Rosemary
 +
|init=
 +
|author-link=Rosemary Romberg
 +
|year=2021
 +
|title=Circumcision — The Painful Dilemma
 +
|url=https://circumcisionthepainfuldilemma.wordpress.com/
 +
|work=
 +
|editor=[[Ulf Dunkel]]
 +
|edition=Second Edition, Revised
 +
|volume=
 +
|chapter=Infection
 +
|scope=
 +
|page=266
 +
|pages=
 +
|location=
 +
|publisher=Kindle
 +
|ISBN=23: 979-8683021252
 +
|quote=
 +
|accessdate=2023-08-31
 +
|note=
 +
}}</ref> The open wound does not heal immediately and is exposed to the feces (poop) in the diaper (nappie). For a period of time during and after the surgery it is subject to invasion by a wide variety of bacterial, viral, or fungal  pathogens.<ref name="williams1993">{{REFjournal
 
  |last=Williams
 
  |last=Williams
 
  |first=
 
  |first=
Line 27: Line 58:
 
  |etal=no
 
  |etal=no
 
  |title=Complications of circumcision
 
  |title=Complications of circumcision
−
|trans-title=
 
−
|language=
 
 
  |journal=Brit J Surg
 
  |journal=Brit J Surg
 
  |location=
 
  |location=
Line 44: Line 73:
 
  |DOI=10.1002/bjs.1800801005
 
  |DOI=10.1002/bjs.1800801005
 
  |accessdate=2022-01-08
 
  |accessdate=2022-01-08
−
}}</ref>  
+
}}</ref> <ref name="krill2011">{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Krill
 +
|first=Aaron J.
 +
|init=
 +
|author-link=
 +
|last2=Palmer
 +
|first2=Lane S.
 +
|init2=
 +
|author2-link=
 +
|last3=Palmer
 +
|first3=Jeffrey S.
 +
|init3=
 +
|author3-link=
 +
|etal=
 +
|title=Complications of circumcision
 +
|trans-title=
 +
|language=
 +
|journal= ScientificWorldJournal
 +
|location=
 +
|date=2011-12-26
 +
|volume=11
 +
|issue=
 +
|article=
 +
|page=
 +
|pages=2458-68
 +
|url=https://www.hindawi.com/journals/tswj/2011/373829/
 +
|archived=
 +
|quote=
 +
|pubmedID=22235177
 +
|pubmedCID=3253617
 +
|DOI=https://doi.org/10.1100/2011/373829
 +
|accessdate=2022-01-28
 +
}}</ref>
  
−
Maternity hospitals gather together newborn infants into a hospital nursery where they are cared for, which increases the risk of passing infection from one to the others. If an infant is compromised by an open surgical wound, then that infant is more likely to become infected. Male infants in America, where non-therapeutic infant circumcision is popular, are more likely to be infected than female infants. Staphylococcus aureus is a common infection and is worse when a methicillin resistant strain ([https://www.cdc.gov/mrsa/index.html MRSA]) is involved.  Thompson et al. (1966) reported a higher risk of staphylococcus infection in newborn circumcised males.<ref name="thompson1966">{{REFjournal
+
Maternity hospitals gather together newborn infants into a hospital nursery where they are cared for, which increases the risk of passing infection from one to the others. If an infant is compromised by an open surgical wound, then that infant is at greater risk of becoming infected. Male infants in America, where non-therapeutic infant [[circumcision]] remains popular, are more likely to become infected than female infants. ''Staphylococcus aureus'' is a common infection and is worse when a methicillin resistant strain ([https://www.cdc.gov/mrsa/index.html MRSA]) is involved.  Thompson et al. (1966) reported a higher risk of ''staphylococcus'' infection in newborn [[circumcised]] males.<ref name="thompson1966">{{REFjournal
 
  |last=Thompson
 
  |last=Thompson
 
  |first=
 
  |first=
Line 69: Line 130:
 
  |etal=no
 
  |etal=no
 
  |title=Excess risk of staphylococcus infection and disease in newborn males.
 
  |title=Excess risk of staphylococcus infection and disease in newborn males.
−
|trans-title=
 
−
|language=
 
 
  |journal=Am J Epidemiol  
 
  |journal=Am J Epidemiol  
 
  |location=
 
  |location=
Line 101: Line 160:
 
  |etal=no
 
  |etal=no
 
  |title=A prolonged nursery epidemic associated with a newly recognized type of group A streptococcus
 
  |title=A prolonged nursery epidemic associated with a newly recognized type of group A streptococcus
−
|trans-title=
 
−
|language=
 
 
  |journal=J Pediatr  
 
  |journal=J Pediatr  
 
  |location=
 
  |location=
Line 112: Line 169:
 
  |pages=792-6
 
  |pages=792-6
 
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/complications/nelson1/
 
  |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/complications/nelson1/
−
|archived=
 
−
|quote=
 
 
  |pubmedID=789841
 
  |pubmedID=789841
 
  |pubmedCID=
 
  |pubmedCID=
Line 119: Line 174:
 
  |accessdate=2022-01-10
 
  |accessdate=2022-01-10
 
}}</ref>  
 
}}</ref>  
 +
 +
[[Robert S. Van Howe|Van Howe]] & Robson (2007) examined reports of three outbreaks of community-associated methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' (CA-MRSA) in American maternity hospital nurseries. They found that boys, with 73 percent of the cases, are at greater risk due to the prevalence of non-therapeutic [[circumcision]].  The authors, observed that CA-MRSA can progress to  bacteremia, osteomyelitis, pyelonephritis, perinephric abscess, lung abscess, empyema, [[shock]], and [[death]]. They suggested minimizing newborn circumcisions to reduce the risk of infection.<ref name="vanhowe2007">{{REFjournal
 +
|last=Van Howe
 +
|first=Robert S.
 +
|init=RS
 +
|author-link=Robert S. Van Howe
 +
|last2=Robson
 +
|first2=Wm. Lane M.
 +
|init2=LM
 +
|author2-link=
 +
|etal=yes
 +
|title=The Possible Role of Circumcision in Newborn Outbreaks of Community-Associated Methicillin-Resistant ''Staphylococcal aureus''
 +
|journal=Clin Pediatr
 +
|location=
 +
|date=2007
 +
|volume=46
 +
|issue=4
 +
|article=
 +
|page=
 +
|pages=356-8
 +
|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Robert-Van-Howe/publication/6354204_The_Possible_Role_of_Circumcision_in_Newborn_Outbreaks_of_Community-Associated_Methicillin-Resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus/links/004635367c240d30cf000000/The-Possible-Role-of-Circumcision-in-Newborn-Outbreaks-of-Community-Associated-Methicillin-Resistant-Staphylococcus-aureus.pdf
 +
|archived=
 +
|quote=
 +
|pubmedID=17475996
 +
|pubmedCID=
 +
|DOI=10.1177/0009922806294847.
 +
|accessdate=2022-01-14
 +
}}</ref>
  
 
Infant non-therapeutic circumcisions do not cure disease and do not contribute to health. When infection occurs after a [[circumcision]] performed by a physician, then it may be considered to be [[iatrogenic]] as the infection would not have occurred if the circumcision had not been performed.
 
Infant non-therapeutic circumcisions do not cure disease and do not contribute to health. When infection occurs after a [[circumcision]] performed by a physician, then it may be considered to be [[iatrogenic]] as the infection would not have occurred if the circumcision had not been performed.
Line 290: Line 373:
 
}}</ref>
 
}}</ref>
  
−
Cleary & Kohl (1979) reported the case of a six-week old infant boy who was circumcised in his mother's physician's office. Infection with streptococcus developed. The boy was hospitalized, but even with the best of antibiotic and other treatment, [[death]] resulted.<ref name="cleary1979">{{REFjournal
+
Cleary & Kohl (1979) reported the case of a six-week old infant boy who was circumcised in his mother's physician's office. Infection with streptococcus developed. The boy was hospitalized, but even with the best of antibiotic and other treatment, [[death]] resulted. The authors stated:
 +
<blockquote>
 +
Significant infection is rarely solely attributed to circumcision because a clear-cut cause and effect relationship is difficult to establish. There have been reports of newborns5-7 who have been circumcised and then developed life threatening infection within several days of this procedure. However, the fact that in these infants infection has occurred at an age when the incidence of infection is high due to other factors complicates interpretation of these reports.<ref name="cleary1979">{{REFjournal
 
  |last=Cleary
 
  |last=Cleary
 
  |first=
 
  |first=
Line 318: Line 403:
 
  |DOI=
 
  |DOI=
 
  |accessdate=2022-01-13
 
  |accessdate=2022-01-13
−
}}
+
}}</ref></blockquote>
−
 
 
−
Example</ref>
 
  
 
Woodside (1980) reported the case of an infant boy who was circumcised with the Plastibell device. He developed necrotizing fasciitis after his non-therapeutic circumcision. His treatment required extensive debridement of tissue. The boy apparently survived.<ref>{{REFjournal
 
Woodside (1980) reported the case of an infant boy who was circumcised with the Plastibell device. He developed necrotizing fasciitis after his non-therapeutic circumcision. His treatment required extensive debridement of tissue. The boy apparently survived.<ref>{{REFjournal
Line 393: Line 476:
 
  |format=
 
  |format=
 
  |quote=
 
  |quote=
−
}}</ref> Bliss et al. (1997) reported two cases of necrotizing fasciitis after non-therapeutic infant circumcision with the Plastibell device. Extensive aggressive debridement of infected necrotic tissue was required.<ref name="bliss1997">{{REFjournal
+
}}</ref> Bliss et al. (1997) reported two cases of necrotizing fasciitis after non-therapeutic infant [[circumcision]] with the Plastibell device. Extensive aggressive debridement of infected necrotic tissue was required.<ref name="bliss1997">{{REFjournal
 
  |last=Bliss
 
  |last=Bliss
 
  |first=
 
  |first=
Line 429: Line 512:
 
==Ritual circumcision==
 
==Ritual circumcision==
  
−
Professor [[L. Emmett Holt]] (1913) reported 41 cases of tuberculosis in ritually circumcised boys who had been infected by tubercular [[Mohel| mohels]], of whom 16 had died at the time of writing.<ref>{{REFjournal
+
Professor [[L. Emmett Holt]] (1913) reported 41 cases of tuberculosis in ritually [[circumcised]] boys who had been infected by tubercular [[Mohel| mohels]], of whom 16 had died at the time of writing.<ref>{{REFjournal
 
  |last=Holt
 
  |last=Holt
 
  |init=LE
 
  |init=LE
Line 502: Line 585:
 
  |url=http://adc.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/adc.2008.144063v1
 
  |url=http://adc.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/adc.2008.144063v1
 
}}</ref>
 
}}</ref>
 +
==Treatment==
 +
The usual treatment of infection is with antibiotics.
 +
{{SEEALSO}}
 +
* [[Jacob Sweet]]
 +
{{LINKS}}
 +
* {{REFweb
 +
|url=https://www.doctorsopposingcircumcision.org/for-professionals/complications/#anchor-03
 +
|archived=
 +
|title=Infection
 +
|trans-title=
 +
|language=
 +
|last=
 +
|first=
 +
|author-link=
 +
|publisher=[[Doctors Opposing Circumcision (D.O.C.)]]
 +
|website=
 +
|date=2016
 +
|accessdate=2022-01-15
 +
|format=
 +
|quote=
 +
}}
  
 
{{REF}}
 
{{REF}}
  
−
 
+
[[Category:Medical term]]
−
 
 
−
[[Category:Term]]
 
 
[[Category:Circumcision complication]]
 
[[Category:Circumcision complication]]
 
[[Category:Parental information]]
 
[[Category:Parental information]]
 +
 +
[[de:Infektion]]

Latest revision as of 22:34, 20 October 2023

Infection of an ingrown toenail; there is pus (yellow) and resultant inflammation (redness and swelling around the nail).

Infection is invasion of the body by organisms (pathogens) that have the potential to cause disease. The pathogen may be bacterial, fungal, or viral.[1]

The human foreskin has numerous functions that protect against infection.[2] Infection is a well-known possible complication of circumcision. Circumcised males have an increased risk of infection due to loss of the protective functions.

Contents

Circumcision infection

Neonatal circumcision is an elective, medically-unnecessary, non-therapeutic amputation of the healthy foreskin that is done only after parents sign a circumcision consent form. It exposes an infant to surgical risks, but does not treat or prevent disease.[3] Circumcision is a surgical operation and amputation that creates an open surgical wound on the penis. Rosemary Romberg (2021) described infection as a "fairly common complication."[4] The open wound does not heal immediately and is exposed to the feces (poop) in the diaper (nappie). For a period of time during and after the surgery it is subject to invasion by a wide variety of bacterial, viral, or fungal pathogens.[5] [6]

Maternity hospitals gather together newborn infants into a hospital nursery where they are cared for, which increases the risk of passing infection from one to the others. If an infant is compromised by an open surgical wound, then that infant is at greater risk of becoming infected. Male infants in America, where non-therapeutic infant circumcision remains popular, are more likely to become infected than female infants. Staphylococcus aureus is a common infection and is worse when a methicillin resistant strain (MRSA) is involved. Thompson et al. (1966) reported a higher risk of staphylococcus infection in newborn circumcised males.[7] Nelson et al. (1976) reported a prolonged case of hospital nursery infection in which the pathogen was streptococcus.[8]

Van Howe & Robson (2007) examined reports of three outbreaks of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) in American maternity hospital nurseries. They found that boys, with 73 percent of the cases, are at greater risk due to the prevalence of non-therapeutic circumcision. The authors, observed that CA-MRSA can progress to bacteremia, osteomyelitis, pyelonephritis, perinephric abscess, lung abscess, empyema, shock, and death. They suggested minimizing newborn circumcisions to reduce the risk of infection.[9]

Infant non-therapeutic circumcisions do not cure disease and do not contribute to health. When infection occurs after a circumcision performed by a physician, then it may be considered to be iatrogenic as the infection would not have occurred if the circumcision had not been performed.

In cases of adult circumcision, erections may cause wound dehiscence (splitting open of the surgical wound) thereby increasing the risk of infection.[10]

Case reports

Rosenstein (1941) reported a case of diphtheria infection in the circumcision wound of a three-year-old child who died on the eighth day after surgery.[11]

Sauer (1943) reported a case of staphylococcus bronchopneumonia following infant circumcision in which death occurred on the 18th day of life.[12]

Kirkpatrick & Eitzman (1974) reported two cases of septicemia (infection in the blood) after non-therapeutic neonatal circumcision in which the patients almost died.[13]

Meningitis is a serious inflammation of the meninges, the thin, membranous covering of the brain and the spinal cord. Meningitis is most commonly caused by infection (by bacteria, viruses, or fungi).[14] Scurlock & Pemberton (1977) reported on four cases of meningitis which started with an infected circumcision wound that proceeded to septicemia and meningitis. One of the four patients died.[15]

Ritter's disease is now called Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome' (SSSS). It is caused by infection with Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. The infection causes large sections of skin to peel away as occurs after burns.[16] Annuziato & Goldblum (1978) reported three cases of SSSS, which started with infected circumcision wounds. Death occurred with one case but the other two recovered.[17]

Cleary & Kohl (1979) reported the case of a six-week old infant boy who was circumcised in his mother's physician's office. Infection with streptococcus developed. The boy was hospitalized, but even with the best of antibiotic and other treatment, death resulted. The authors stated:

Significant infection is rarely solely attributed to circumcision because a clear-cut cause and effect relationship is difficult to establish. There have been reports of newborns5-7 who have been circumcised and then developed life threatening infection within several days of this procedure. However, the fact that in these infants infection has occurred at an age when the incidence of infection is high due to other factors complicates interpretation of these reports.[18]

Woodside (1980) reported the case of an infant boy who was circumcised with the Plastibell device. He developed necrotizing fasciitis after his non-therapeutic circumcision. His treatment required extensive debridement of tissue. The boy apparently survived.[19]

Curran & Al-Salihi (1980) reported an outbreak of staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS) at the Margaret Hague Maternity Hospital in Jersey City, New Jersey. The outbreak affected 68 newborns over a 115 day period. The male to female ratio was 5.5 to one, which clearly indicated that the circumcision wound in boys was the entry point for the infection in most cases. The infants had generalized exfoliative disease with loses of large patches of skin. No deaths were reported.[20]

Necrotizing fasciitis is a life-threatening skin infection.[21] Bliss et al. (1997) reported two cases of necrotizing fasciitis after non-therapeutic infant circumcision with the Plastibell device. Extensive aggressive debridement of infected necrotic tissue was required.[22]

Ritual circumcision

Professor L. Emmett Holt (1913) reported 41 cases of tuberculosis in ritually circumcised boys who had been infected by tubercular mohels, of whom 16 had died at the time of writing.[23]

More recently, cases of infection of baby boys with herpes simplex have been reported. One death and brain damage in another has occurred.[24]

Ritual circumcision is a cause of urinary tract infection (UTI).[25][26][27][28]

Treatment

The usual treatment of infection is with antibiotics.

See also

External links

References

  1. ↑   (2012). Infection, The Free Dictionary. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
  2. ↑   Cold CJ, Taylor JR. The prepuce. BJU Int. January 1999; 83, Suppl. 1: 34-44. PMID. DOI. Retrieved 8 July 2021.
  3. ↑   Deacon M, Muir G. What is the medical evidence on non-therapeutic child circumcision?. Int J Impot Res. 8 January 2022; PMID. DOI. Retrieved 2 February 2022.
  4. ↑   Romberg, Rosemary (2021): Infection, in: Circumcision — The Painful Dilemma. Ulf Dunkel (ed.). Edition: Second Edition, Revised. Kindle. P. 266. ISBN 23: 979-8683021252. Retrieved 31 August 2023.
  5. ↑   Williams N, Kapilla, Leela. Complications of circumcision. Brit J Surg. October 1993; 80(10): 1231-6. PMID. DOI. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
  6. ↑   Krill, Aaron J., Palmer, Lane S., Palmer, Jeffrey S.. Complications of circumcision. ScientificWorldJournal. 26 December 2011; 11: 2458-68. PMID. PMC. DOI. Retrieved 28 January 2022.
  7. ↑   Thompson DJ, Gezon HM, Rogers KD, Yee RB, Hatch TF. Excess risk of staphylococcus infection and disease in newborn males.. Am J Epidemiol. September 1966; 84(2): 314-28. PMID. DOI. Retrieved 9 January 2022.
  8. ↑   Nelson, JD, Dillon, Jr. HC, Howard, JB. A prolonged nursery epidemic associated with a newly recognized type of group A streptococcus. J Pediatr. November 1976; 89(5): 792-6. PMID. DOI. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
  9. ↑   Van Howe RS, Robson LM, et al. The Possible Role of Circumcision in Newborn Outbreaks of Community-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcal aureus. Clin Pediatr. 2007; 46(4): 356-8. PMID. DOI. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
  10. ↑   Kaplan GW. Complications of circumcision. Urol Clin N Amer. 1983; 10(08): 543-9. Retrieved 15 June 2020.
  11. ↑   Rosenstein JL. Wound diphtheria in the newborn infant following circumcision: report of a case. J Pediatr. 1941; 18: 657-8. Retrieved 9 January 2022.
  12. ↑   Sauer LW. Fatal staphylococcus bronchopneumonia following ritual circumcision. Am J Obstetr Gynecol. 1943; 46: 583. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
  13. ↑   Kirkpatrick BV, Eitzman DV. Neonatal septicemia after circumcision. Clin Pediatr. September 1974; 19(9): 767-8. PMID. DOI. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
  14. ↑   (2008). Meningitis, The Free Dictionary. Retrieved 12 January 2022.
  15. ↑   Scurlock JM, Pemberton PJ. Neonatal meningitis and circumcision.. Med J Aust. 5 March 1977; 1(10): 332-4. PMID. DOI. Retrieved 12 January 2022.
  16. ↑   (2002). Ritter's disese, The Free Dictionary. Retrieved 13 January 2022.
  17. ↑   Annunziato D, Goldblum LM. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome. A complication of circumcision. Am J Dis Child. December 1978; 132(12): 1187-8. PMID. DOI. Retrieved 13 January 2022.
  18. ↑   Cleary, Kohl. Overwhelming infection with group B beta-hemolytic streptococcus associated with circumcision. Pediatrics. September 1979; 64(3): 301-3. PMID. Retrieved 13 January 2022.
  19. ↑   Woodside, Jeffrey R.. Necrotizing fasciitis after neonatal circumcision. Am J Dis Child. March 1980; 134(3): 301-2. PMID. DOI. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
  20. ↑   Curran JP, Al-Salahi FL. Neonatal staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome: massive outbreak due to an unusual phage type. Pediatrics. August 1980; 66(2): 285-90. PMID. Retrieved 13 January 2022.
  21. ↑   (31 December 2019). Necrotizing Fasciitis: All You Need to Know, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
  22. ↑   Bliss DP, Healey PJ, Waldhausen JH. Necrotizing fasciitis after Plastibell circumcision. J Pediatr. September 1997; 131(3): 459-62. PMID. DOI. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
  23. ↑   Holt LE. Tuberculosis acquired through ritual circumcision. JAMA. 1913; LXI(2): 99-102. Retrieved January 2022.
  24. ↑   Frieden, Thomas: An open letter to the Jewish Community from the New York City Health Commissioner  , City of New York. (13 December 2005). Retrieved 9 January 2022.
  25. ↑   Smith RM. Recent contributions to the study of pyelitis in infancy. Am J Dis Child. 1916; XII: 235.243.
  26. ↑   Cohen H, et al. Postcircumcision Urinary Tract Infection. Clinical Pediatrics. 1992; : 322-324.
  27. ↑   Goldman M, Barr J, Bistritzer T, Aladjem M. Urinary tract infection following ritual jewish circumcision. Israel Journal of Medical Sciences. 1996; 32(11): 1098-1102.
  28. ↑   Prais D, Shoov-Furman R, Amir J. Is circumcision a risk factor for neonatal urinary tract infections?. Arch Dis Child. 6 October 2008; DOI.
Retrieved from "https://en.intactiwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Infection&oldid=34460"