History of circumcision

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Historical background

The amputation of the foreskin is a very old ritual, whose exact origin cannot be verified beyond doubt. Circumcision is believed to have originated in east Africa near the Red Sea well before the dawn of recorded history.[1] Medical historians assume that circumcision already served in ancient history as a way to control the sexuality of slaves and members of the lower classes without compromising their ability to reproduce. In religious history circumcision may be seen as a substitute for human sacrifice. In prehistoric times it was not uncommon to placate the gods with human sacrifice. Castration of slaves or conquered enemies was common as well. Following religious changes this sacrifice was altered, and only a part of the very organ responsible for the creation of new life was sacrificed.

Circumcision Sakkara 3.jpg

For the Aborigines, the Australian natives, the tradition of circumcision is said to go back to 10,000 BC. On the African continent, the first circumcisions are assumed to have emerged around 6000 BC. From ancient Egypt hints of various forms of circumcision date back to the time around 3000-2000 BC. The oldest known depiction[2] is an Egyptian tomb relief from the 6th dynasty, approximately 2300-2000 BC. It is not known precisely who was circumcised and why in those times.

In many cultures circumcision during puberty serves as a rite of passage, bringing adolescents into the community. As with other painful or humiliating initiation rites, proof of courage and mastering of critical situations are the key motivations. From some African tribes it is also known that the amputation of the foreskin is seen as the removal of an inborn piece of femininity from the boys, thus making them men.

Judaism

In Judaism, the tradition of circumcision goes back to the Abrahamic covenant in a passage in the Book of Genesis (17:10-14). It was seen as a covenant between God and man, dating back to the patriarch Abraham.[3] The validity of this passage is increasingly being questioned.

“ 10 This is my covenant with you and your descendants after you, the covenant you are to keep: Every male among you shall be circumcised. 11 You are to undergo circumcision, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and you. 12 For the generations to come every male among you who is eight days old must be circumcised, including those born in your household or bought with money from a foreigner—those who are not your offspring. 13 Whether born in your household or bought with your money, they must be circumcised. My covenant in your flesh is to be an everlasting covenant. 14 Any uncircumcised male, who has not been circumcised in the flesh, will be cut off from his people; he has broken my covenant.”
– Bible (Gen 17, 10-14, NIV)

According to the anthropologist and sociologist Rabbi Nissan Rubin, the Jewish form of circumcision, called brit mila, during the first two millennia did not include the later customary periah, namely the complete scraping of the inner foreskin from the glans. This was only added around 135 AD, to make it almost impossible to restore the foreskin by stretching, which became popular in the wake of Hellenic influence. While originally only the tip of the foreskin was cut off, periah removes the entire foreskin.

In the Greek society of the day, a denuded glans was considered obscene and risible. In ultra-orthodox communities, circumcision is followed by the mohel, the ritual circumciser, sucking blood from the wound with his mouth. This practice is highly controversial, as it can result in an infection with herpes simplex type 1. In New York City, between 2000 and 2011 eleven children were infected with herpes, 10 of whom had to be treated in hospital. Two of them suffered permanent brain damage, two others died. In the 12th century, the Jewish philosopher and doctor Maimonides claimed that circumcision was necessary, as it diminished sexual desires and reduced the pleasure to a degree just sufficient for mere reproduction.

Christianity

Jesus was born into a Jewish family in Israel, where Judaism was the prevailing religion, so He was circumcised on the eighth day.[4]

The first Christians had been born Jewish, so a question arose whether one must be circumcised to be a Christian. When Christian leaders met at the Council at Jerusalem in the First Century to decide what was required to be a Christian, a letter was written to explain the requirements, but circumcision was omitted from the requirements.[5]

In Christianity, circumcision is practiced only in the Coptic denomination. There is no general belief that circumcision is a requirement of Christianity.[6]

Nevertheless, Christian moral notions had decisive influence on the spread of this practice. In the puritan influenced USA, circumcision of children was popular in the 19th century as a means to prevent masturbation. In those days, this so-called ‘self-abuse‘ was not only considered immoral, but was supposedly responsible for a variety of diseases. Masturbation, however, is not mentioned anywhere in the Holy Bible, so there is no support for the belief that it is somehow immoral or sinful.

Even the mere existence of a foreskin was falsoly linked to many illnesses. Among them one could find syphilis, epilepsy, paralysis of the spine, bed wetting, scoliosis (spinal deformity), paralysis of the bladder, club foot, nerve pain in the lower abdomen, tuberculosis and lazy eye. One of the best known advocates of child circumcision was John Harvey Kellogg, co-inventor of the corn flakes bearing his name. In 1888, he wrote:

“ A remedy which is almost always successful in small boys is circumcision, especially when there is any degree of phimosis. The operation should be performed by a surgeon without administering an anaesthetic, as the brief pain attending the operation will have a salutary effect upon the mind, especially if it be connected with the idea of punishment, as it may well be in some cases. In females, the author has found the application of pure carbolic acid to the clitoris an excellent means of allaying the abnormal excitement, and preventing the recurrence of the practice in those whose will-power has become so weakened that the patient is unable to exercise entire self-control.
– John Harvey Kellogg[7]

Islam

In Islam, circumcision is also religiously founded, even though there is no mention of it in the Koran itself. According to tradition, the Prophet Mohammed was born without a foreskin. It is seen as a sign of prophets that they are born without a foreskin already. It is considered an honour to "resemble the example of the Prophet", meaning to be circumcised. In Islam, unlike Judaism, there is no specific age at which the circumcision should be performed. Most circumcisions take place at ages between 6 and 10 years, but the range goes from birth to adulthood.

Many Americans are surprised to hear that circumcision (the surgical removal of the foreskin) is uncommon in the western world. Foreigners are often shocked when they first hear that the practice of circumcision even exists in the United States. Circumcision was first introduced in the United States by an anti-sexual Victorian initiative which began during the 1830’s. Numerous publications from the 1830’s to times even as late as the 1970’s had advocated for circumcision as a means to prevent masturbation, and to permanently desensitize, denude, and immobilize the penis.[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]

From Historical American Female Circumcision medical papers

Circumcision advocates quickly moved on to manufacture a number of outrageous health claims. These claims were tailored to the fears and anxieties of the day. Circumcision has been claimed to cure epilepsy, convulsions, paralysis, elephantiasis, tuberculosis, eczema, bed-wetting, hip-joint disease, fecal incontinence, rectal prolapse, wet dreams, hernia, headaches, nervousness, hysteria, poor eyesight, idiocy, mental retardation, insanity, strabismus, hydrocephalus, clubfoot, cancer, STD’s, UTI’s, etc.[19] Masturbation was a major focus of Victorian doctors.[20]

When gentiles in Germany criticized the Jewish practice of ritual circumcision as "barbaric", Jewish doctors in Germany invented false claims that circumcision could prevent a variety of diseases.[21] American Jewish doctors exhibited similar behavior.

Doctors were eager to claim that they could prevent and cure many of these aliments, conditions and diseases because there were no treatments available then. Even though all of these claims have been throughly discredited, circumcision has remained a solution in search of a problem ever since. Many Americans are surprised to find out that female genital cutting (FGC) shares a strikingly similar history in the United States. [11][22][23][24][25][26][27] FGC was even covered by Blue Cross Blue Shield until 1977. Nowadays, many forms of FGC are now considered forms of female genital mutilation (FGM), which are banned in all western countries.

History of circumcision in the western world

19th century

  • 1873 Joseph Bell announces his discovery that circumcision cures bed wetting.[32]
  • 1875 Lewis A. Sayre declares that foreskin causes curvature of the spine, paralysis of the bladder, and clubfoot.[33]
  • 1876 T.K. Cheyne in The Encyclopedia Brittanica reports no medical purpose, only a Jewish religious reason for circumcision.[34]
  • 1879 H. H. Kane 'discovers' that circumcision cures nocturnal emissions and abdominal neuralgia.[35]
  • 1893 Mark J. Lehman demands immediate implementation of mass circumcision of all American boys.[40]
  • 1894 H. L. Rosenberry publishes paper 'proving' that circumcision cures urinary and rectal incontinence.[41]

20st century

  • 1900 Jonathan Hutchinson advises circumcision as way to decrease the pleasure of sex, and hence to discourage sexual immorality.[42]
  • 1901 Ernest G. Mark notes that the "pleasurable sensations that are elicited from the extremely sensitive" inner lining of the foreskin may encourage a child to masturbate, which is why he recommends circumcision since it "lessens the sensitiveness of the organ".[43]
  • 1902 Roswell Park publishes paper 'proving' that foreskin causes epilepsy and that circumcision cures it.[44]
  • 1914 Abraham L. Wolbarst claims that circumcision prevents tuberculosis and demands the compulsory circumcision of all children in America.[45]
  • 1915 Benjamin E. Dawson says that since the clitoral hood is the source of many neuroses, female circumcision is necessary.[24]
  • 1930 Norton Henry Bare claims that he has cured a boy of epilepsy and bed-wetting by circumcising him.[47]
The Gomco and Mogen clamps.
  • 1935 R. W. Cockshut demands that all boys be circumcised in order to desensitize the penis and promote chastity.[14]
  • 1941 Alan F. Guttmacher promotes mass circumcision as a means of blunting male sexual sensitivity. He also spreads the false claim that a baby's foreskin must be forcibly retracted and scrubbed daily.[15]
  • 1949 Eugene H. Hand declares that circumcision prevents venereal disease and cancer of the tongue.[50]
  • 1949 Douglas Gairdner points out that the previous years cases of infant circumcision deaths were not necessary given the lack of medical justification for circumcision.
    (Note: This paper helped encourage the National Health Service to drop coverage for infant circumcision which led to the practical elimination of non- religious circumcision in the United Kingdom.)[51]
  • 1951 Abraham Ravich invents claims that circumcision prevents cervical cancer in women.[52]
  • 1956 Raymond Creelman invents the Circumstraint which straps down and immobilizes the baby's arms and legs.[54]
  • 1958 Christine F. McDonald says "the same reasons that apply for the circumcision of males are generally valid when considered for the female."[26]
  • 1959 W. G. Rathmann finds that among the many benefits of female circumcision is that it will make the clitoris easier for the husband to find.[27]
  • 1966 Masters and Johnson erroneous claim that there is no difference in sensitivity between penises with and without foreskin.
    (Note: Their work helps propagate the medical dogma that circumcision has no effect on sexuality go practically unquestioned for nearly the next four decades.)[55]
  • 1971 Abraham Ravich claims that circumcision prevents cancer of the bladder and the rectum.[56]
  • 1973 R. Dagher, Melvin Selzer, and Jack Lapides declare that anyone who disagrees with their agenda to impose mass circumcision on America is deluded.[58]
  • 1975 The American Academy of Pediatrics Task force on Circumcision declares, "There are no medical indications for routine circumcisions and the procedure cannot be considered an essential component of health care."[59]
  • 1976 Benjamin Spock, after recommending circumcision for thirty years, revises his best-selling parenting book: "I strongly recommend leaving the foreskin alone. Parents should insist on convincing reasons for circumcision — and there are no convincing reasons that I know of."[60]
  • 1988 Aaron J. Fink invents the falsehood that circumcision prevents neonatal group B streptococcal disease.[63]
  • 1991 Edgar J. Schoen tries and fails to convince European countries to institute mass circumcision.[65]
  • 1991 Aaron J. Fink declares mass circumcision is necessary to prevent sand from getting into the soldiers' foreskins.[66]
  • 1997 Edgar J. Schoen tries and fails once again to convince European countries to institute mass circumcision.[68]
  • 1997 Janice Lander discovers that circumcision without anesthesia is traumatic for babies.
    (Note: Before this, almost all infant circumcisions were done without anesthetic due to the prevalent belief among circumcisers that babies are not capable of feeling significant pain and if they could it doesn't matter since they won't be able to remember it.)[69]
  • 1998 Howard J. Stang, inventor of an upright circumcision restraint fails to mention this conflict of interest in his article promoting infant circumcision.[70]
  • 1999 John R. Taylor, after studying the foreskin's specialized innervation, concludes that it is the "primary erogenous tissue necessary for normal sexual function."[71]
  • 1999 The American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Circumcision, after reviewing 40 years worth of medical studies, concluded that the "potential medical benefits of newborn male circumcision... are not sufficient to recommend routine neonatal circumcision." This report is also the first time the AAP has acknowledged (after decades of doctors mindlessly repeating the belief that babies don't feel significant pain) that circumcision without anesthesia is traumatic and if circumcision is to be done, anesthesia should be used. Here are some highlights from the report:
Role of Hygiene: "there is little evidence to affirm the association between circumcision status and optimum penile hygiene."
STDs including HIV: "behavioral factors appear to be far more important than circumcision status."
Penile Cancer: "in a developed country such as the United States, penile cancer is a rare disease and the risk of penile cancer developing in an uncircumcised man, although increased compared with a circumcised man, is low."
Urinary Tract Infections: "breastfeeding was shown to have a threefold protective effect on the incidence of UTI in a sample of uncircumcised infants. However, breastfeeding status has not been evaluated systematically in studies assessing UTI and circumcision status." meaning that the earlier UTIs studies results were confounded. Even if their numbers were accurate, in order to prevent one UTI during the first year of life by circumcising a baby boy, approximately 195 babies who will not get a UTI would need to be circumcised. Also infant girls commonly develop UTIs(in some studies at even higher rates than infant boys) and the standard treatment for them is antibiotics which works just as well for infant boys with UTIs. The AAP concludes this section noting that "the absolute risk of developing a UTI in an uncircumcised male infant is low (at most, ~1%)".
Ethics: Here they say while even though cutting off part of your baby's genitalia "is not essential to the child's current well-being" they are perfectly fine with parents and doctors using cultural tradition as justification.
(Note: The report does not mention whether they also think cultural tradition is an acceptable reason to anesthetize infant girls and then cut off their clitoral hoods(which are biologically analogous to foreskin)).[72]
  • 2017 After extreme adverse comment from many critics, the AAP allows its 2012 Circumcision Policy Statement to expire and now has NO circumcision policy.

21st century

  • 2002 W. K. Nahm extends the storage life of specialized cell cultures derived from "freshly harvested neonatal foreskin tissue."
    (Note: Since the 1980s, some amputated infant foreskins have been sold without the knowledge of the parents to biomedical companies for research and even use in commercial cosmetic products such as anti-wrinkle creams.)[73]
  • 2005 R. Y. Stallings finds that HIV rates are significantly lower in circumcised women.
    (Note: There was no WHO call for mass female circumcision to help prevent AIDS.)[75]
  • 2007 Robert C. Bailey ends his study early with the conclusion touting circumcision as a 'vaccine' that prevents HIV infection.
    (Note: This and other similar studies were widely reported throughout the American media.)[76]
  • 2007 Lot de Witte finds that Langerhans cells found in the foreskin are a natural barrier to HIV infection.
    (Note: This and other similar studies were widely ignored throughout the American media.)[77]
  • 2017 The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) allowed its Circumcision Policy Statement to expire with being re-affirmed due to the severe and unrelenting adverse comment from many sources. The AAP now has NO official position on child circumcision.

See also

External links

References

  1. Jump up ↑ REFbook DeMeo (1997): The geography of sexual mutilations. Work: Sexual Mutilations: A Human Tragedy. George C. Denniston, Marilyn Milos (eds.). New York: Plenum. ISBN 0-306-45589-7. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
  2. Jump up ↑ REFweb File:Circumcision Sakkara 3.jpg. Retrieved 12 October 2019.
  3. Jump up ↑ REFweb Garrett CJ (10 November 2023). Pros and Cons of Circumcision (Spoiler: You’ve Been Lied to), Intact America. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
  4. Jump up ↑ REFweb Luke. Gospel of Luke, Bible Gateway, NASB. Retrieved 10 November 2019.
    Quote: And when eight days had passed, before His circumcision, His name was then called Jesus, the name given by the angel before He was conceived in the womb.
  5. Jump up ↑ REFweb Luke. Acts 15:1-30. Retrieved 10 November 2019.
  6. Jump up ↑ REFweb Hill, George (29 August 2004). The Holy Bible, Circumcision, False Prophets, and Christian Parents Icons-mini-file pdf.svg, Circumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 November 2019.
    Quote: The falseness of those who advocate circumcision is a recurrent theme in the New Testament.
  7. Jump up ↑ REFbook Kellogg JH (1888): Treatment for Self-abuse and Its Effects, in: Plain Facts for Old and Young. Burlington, Iowa: F. Segner & Co.. P. 107.
  8. ↑ Jump up to: a b REFbook Lallemand CF ((1):1836; (2):1839; (3):1842): [Des Pertes Seminales Involontaires]. [Involuntary Seminal Losses] (French). Vol. 1-3. London: H. Dumont. Pp. (1):463-7; (2):70-162; (3):266-7, 280-9. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
  9. ↑ Jump up to: a b REFbook Dixon EH (1845): Ch. IX: Phimosis and Circumcision, in: A Treatise on Diseases of the Sexual Organs. New York: William Taylor. Pp. 158-65. Retrieved 30 October 2021.
  10. ↑ Jump up to: a b REFjournal Moses MJ. The Value of Circumcision as a Hygienic and Therapeutic Measure. NY Med J. November 1871; 14(4): 368-74.
  11. ↑ Jump up to: a b REFbook Kellogg JH (1888): Treatment for Self-Abuse and Its Effects, in: Plain Facts for Old and Young (archive URL). Project Gutenberg (ed.). Burlington, Iowa: F. Segner & Co. Retrieved 31 October 2021.
  12. ↑ Jump up to: a b REFjournal Hutchinson J. On circumcision as preventive of masturbation. Archives of Surgery. January 1891; 2(7): 267-269.
  13. ↑ Jump up to: a b REFjournal Remondino PC. Negro rapes and their social problems. National Popular Review. January 1894; 4(1): 3-6.
  14. ↑ Jump up to: a b REFjournal Cockshut RW. Circumcision. British Medical Journal. 19 October 1935; 2(3902): 764.
  15. ↑ Jump up to: a b REFjournal Guttmacher AF. Should the baby be circumcised?. Parents Magazine. September 1941; 16(9): 26,76-78.
  16. ↑ Jump up to: a b REFjournal Miller RL, Snyder DC. Immediate circumcision of the newborn male. AJOG. January 1953; 6(1): 1-11. PMID. DOI. Retrieved 13 October 2021.
  17. ↑ Jump up to: a b REFbook Fishbein M (1969): Sex hygiene, in: Modern Home Medical Adviser. Garden City (ed.). New York: Doubleday & Co. Pp. 90+119. Retrieved 30 October 2021.
  18. Jump up ↑ REFbook Campbell MF (1970): The Male Genital Tract and the Female Urethra, in: Urology. M.F. Campbell & J.H. Harrison (eds.). Edition: 3. Vol. 2. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders. P. 1836.
  19. Jump up ↑ REFbook Hodges FA (1997): Short History of the Institutionalization of Involuntary Sexual Mutilation in the United States, in: Sexual Mutilations: A Human Tragedy. G. C. Denniston & M. F. Milos (eds.). New York: Plenum Press. P. 35.
  20. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Self, Eleanor. The Rise of Circumcision in Victorian America PDF. The Alexandrian. 2016; 5(1) Retrieved 2 September 2022.
  21. Jump up ↑ REFbook Ephron JM (2001): Medicine and the German Jews. Pp. 222-3. ISBN 0-300-08377-7. Retrieved 30 October 2021.
  22. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Morris RT. Is evolution trying to do away with the clitoris?. American Association of OB/GYNs. 1892; 5: 288-302.
  23. ↑ Jump up to: a b REFjournal McFarland TS. Circumcision of girls. Journal of Orificial Surgery. July 1898; 7: 31-33.
  24. ↑ Jump up to: a b REFjournal Dawson BE. Circumcision in the Female: Its Necessity and How to Perform It. American Journal of Clinical Medicine. June 1915; 22(66): 520-3. Retrieved 19 October 2021.
  25. ↑ Jump up to: a b REFjournal Eskridge BC. Why not circumcise the girl as well as the boy?. Texas State Journal of Medicine. May 1918; 14: 17-9.
  26. ↑ Jump up to: a b REFjournal McDonald CF. Circumcision of the female. GP. September 1958; 18(3): 98-9. PMID. Retrieved 13 October 2021.
  27. ↑ Jump up to: a b REFjournal Rathmann WG. Female Circumcision: Indications and a New Technique. General Practitioner. September 1959; 20(9): 115-20. PMID. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
  28. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Hutchinson J. On the Influence of Circumcision in Preventing Syphilis. Medical Times and Gazette. 1855; 32(844): 542-543. Retrieved 4 September 2021.
  29. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Heckford N. Circumcision as a remedial measure in certain cases of epilepsy and chorea. Clinical Lectures and Reports by the Medical and Surgical Staff of the London Hospital. 1865; 2: 58-64.
  30. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Sayre LA. Circumcision versus epilepsy, etc; Transcription of the New York Pathological Society meeting of June 8, 1870. Medical Record. 15 July 1870; 5(10): 231-234.
  31. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Sayre LA. Partial paralysis from reflex irritation, caused by congenital phimosis and adherent prepuce. Transactions of the American Medical Association. 1870; 21: 205-211.
  32. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Bell J. Nocturnal incontinence of urine cured by circumcision. Edinburgh Medical Journal. May 1873; 1(9): 1034.
  33. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Sayre LA. Spinal anaemia with partial paralysis and want of coordination, from irritation of the genital organs. Transactions of the American Medical Association. 1875; 26: 255-274.
  34. Jump up ↑ REFweb Cheyne TK (1876). Circumcision, Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th Ed. Retrieved 13 March 2025.
  35. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Kane HH. Seminal emissions, abdominal neuralgia: circumcision: cure. The Southern Clinic (Richmond). October 1879; 2(1): 8-11.
  36. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Landesberg M. On Affections of the Eye Caused by Masturbation. Medical Bulletin. April 1881; 3(4): 79-81.
  37. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Eggleston WG. Two cases of reflex paraplegia (one with aphasia) from tape-worm and phimosis. JAMA. 1886; 6(19): 511-5. DOI.
  38. Jump up ↑ REFbook Kellogg JH (1888): Treatment for Self-Abuse and Its Effects, in: Plain Facts for Old and Young (archive URL). Project Gutenberg (ed.). Burlington, Iowa: F. Segner & Co. Retrieved 31 October 2021.
  39. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Gentry WD. Nervous derangements produced by sexual irregularities in boys. Medical Current. July 1890; 6(7): 268-274.
  40. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Lehman MJ. A plea for circumcision. Medical Review. 22 July 1893; 28(4): 65-65.
  41. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Rosenberry HL. Incontinence of the urine and faeces, cured by circumcision. Medical Record (New York). 11 August 1894; 46(6): 173.
  42. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Hutchinson J. The advantages of circumcision. The Polyclinic. September 1900; 3(9): 129-131.
  43. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Mark EG. Circumcision. The American Practitioner and News. 15 February 1901; 31(4): 122-6.
  44. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Park R. The surgical treatment of epilepsy. American Medicine. 22 November 1902; 4(22): 807-9.
  45. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Wolbarst AL. Universal circumcision as a sanitary measure. Journal of the American Medical Association. 10 January 1914; 62(2): 92-97.
  46. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Wolbarst AL. Is circumcision a prophylactic against penis cancer?. Cancer. July 1926; 3(4): 301-10.
  47. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Bare NH. Surgical treatment of epilepsy with report of case. Chinese Medical Journal (then: The China Medical Journal). November 1930; 44(11): 1109-13. DOI. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
  48. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Goldstein AA, Yellen HS. Bloodless circumcision of the newborn. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. July 1935; 30(1): 146-7. Retrieved 15 October 2021.
  49. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Ravich A. The relationship of circumcision to cancer of the prostate. Journal of Urology. September 1942; 48(3): 298-299.
  50. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Hand EH. Circumcision and venereal disease. Archives of Dermatology and Syphilology. September 1949; 60(3) PMID. DOI. Retrieved 8 October 2021.
  51. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Gairdner D. The fate of the foreskin. British Medical Journal. 1949; 2: 1433-1437.
  52. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Ravich A. Prophylaxis of cancer of the prostate, penis, and cervix by circumcision. New York State Journal of Medicine. June 1951; 51(12): 1519-20. PMID. Retrieved 6 October 2021.
  53. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Wynder EL, Cornfield J, Schroff PD, Doraiswami KR. A study of environmental factors of carcinoma of the cervix. Am J Obstet Gynecol. October 1954; 68(4): 1016-47; discussion: 1048-52. PMID. DOI. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
  54. Jump up ↑ REFdocument USPTO patent number RE24,377, USPTO. (15 October 1957). Retrieved 19 September 2019.
  55. Jump up ↑ REFbook Masters & Johnson (1966): Human Sexual Response. Boston, MA: Little Brown & Co..
  56. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Ravich A. Viral carcinogenesis in venereally susceptible organs. Cancer. June 1971; 27(6): 1493-6. Retrieved 12 October 2019.
  57. Jump up ↑ REFbook Evanston I (1971): Committee on Fetus and Newborn Issues. Circumcision, in: Hospital Care of Newborn Infants. Edition: 5th Edition. American Academy of Pediatrics. P. 110.
  58. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Dagher R, Selzer M, Lapides J. Carcinoma of the penis and the anti-circumcision crusade. Journal of Urology. July 1973; 110(1): 79-80.
  59. Jump up ↑ REFjournal American Academy of Pediatrics. Report on the ad hoc task force on circumcision. Pediatrics. 1975; 56: 610-611.
  60. Jump up ↑ REFbook Spock B: Baby and Child Care. New York: E P Dutten. Pp. 1946-1976.
  61. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Wiswell TE. Decreased incidence of urinary tract infections in circumcised male infants. Pediatrics. May 1985; 75(5): 901-903.
  62. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Fink AJ. A possible explanation for heterosexual male infection with AIDS. New England Journal of Medicine. 30 October 1986; 31(18): 1167.
  63. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Fink AJ. Is hygiene enough? Circumcision as a possible strategy to prevent group B streptococcal disease. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. August 1988; 159(2): 534-535.
  64. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Schoen EJ. Report of the Task Force on Circumcision. Pediatrics. August 1989; 84(2): 388-391.
  65. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Schoen EJ. Is it time for Europe to reconsider newborn circumcision?. Acta Paediatrica Scandanavian. August 1991; 8(5): 573-577.
  66. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Fink AJ. Circumcision and sand. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. November 1991; 84(11): 696.
  67. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Taylor JR, Lockwood AP, Taylor AJ. The prepuce: specialized mucosa of the penis and its loss to circumcision. Br J Urol. 1996; 77: 291-5. PMID. DOI. Retrieved 23 September 2019.
  68. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Schoen EJ. Benefits of newborn circumcision: Is Europe ignoring the medical evidence?. Archives of Diseases of Childhood. September 1997; 7(33): 258-260.
  69. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Lander J, Brady-Frerer B, Metcalfe JB, Nazerali S, Muttit S. Comparison of ring block, dorsal penile nerve block, and topical anesthesia for neonatal circumcision. JAMA. 24 December 1997; 278(24): 2157-64. PMID. Retrieved 24 November 2023.
  70. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Stang HJ. Patent #5,160,185, Infant support and restraint system 1992, Circumcision Practice Patterns in the United States. Pediatrics. June 1998; 101(6): E5.
  71. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Taylor JR. The prepuce. BJU Int. January 1999; 83(1): 34-44.
  72. Jump up ↑ REFjournal American Academy of Pediatrics. Task Force on Circumcision. Circumcision Policy Statement. Pediatrics. 1999; 103(3): 686-693.
  73. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Nahm WK. Sustained ability for fibroblast outgrowth from stored neonatal foreskin. Journal of Dermatology Science. February 2002; 28(2): 152-158.
  74. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Schoen EJ. It's wise to circumcise: time to change policy. Pediatrics. June 2003; 111(6 Pt 1): 1490-1491.
  75. Jump up ↑ REFconference Stallings, Rebecca Y., with: Emilian Karugendo: Female circumcision and HIV infection in Tanzania: For better or for worse?, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. (24 July 2005–27 July 2005) 3rd International AIDS Society Conference. Retrieved 13 October 2021.
  76. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Bailey RC, Moses S, Parker CB, et al. Male circumcision for HIV prevention in young men in Kisumu, Kenya: A randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 24 February 2007; 369(9562): 643–56. PMID. DOI. Retrieved 31 December 2021.
  77. Jump up ↑ REFjournal de Witte L, Nabatov A, Pion M, Fluitsma D, de Jong MAWP, de Gruijl T, Piguet V, van Kooyk Y, Geijtenbeek TBH. Langerin is a natural barrier to HIV-1 transmission by Langerhans cells PDF. Nature Medicine. 4 March 2007; 13(3): 367-71. PMID. PMC. DOI. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
  78. Jump up ↑ REFjournal Sorrells ML, Snyder JL, Reiss MD, Eden C, Milos MF, Wilcox N, Van Howe RS. Fine‐touch pressure thresholds in the adult penis. BJUI. 19 March 2007; 99(4): 864-9. PMID. DOI. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
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