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Many Americans are surprised to hear that == Historical background == The [[circumcisionamputation]] (the surgical removal of the [[foreskin]]) is uncommon in the western world. Foreigners are often shocked when they first hear that the practice of circumcision even exists in the United States. Circumcision was first introduced in the United States by an anti-sexual Victorian initiative which began during the 1830’sa very old ritual, whose exact origin cannot be verified beyond doubt. Numerous publications from the 1830’s to times even as late as the 1970’s had advocated for circumcision as a means to prevent [[masturbationCircumcision]], and is believed to permanently desensitize, denude, and immobilize have originated in east Africa near the Red Sea well before the penisdawn of recorded history.<ref name="Lallemanddemeo1997">{{REFbook |last=LallemandDeMeo |first=Claude |author-Francoislink= |year=(1):1836; (2):1839; (3):18421997 |title=Des Pertes Seminales InvolontairesThe geography of sexual mutilations |url=httphttps://bookswww.googleacademia.comedu/4212007/books?id=HV4B3UaMUAYC&dq=Des+Pertes+Seminales+Involontaires+1836&lr=&source=gbs_navlinks_sThe_Geography_of_Male_and_Female_Genital_Mutilations |volumework=1-3Sexual Mutilations: A Human Tragedy |pageseditors=(1):463-467; (2):70-162; (3):266-267George C. Denniston, 280-289Marilyn Milos |accessdateedition=2011-06-09}}</ref><ref name="Dixon">{{REFbook |lastvolume=Dixon |firstchapter=Edward H. |year=1845 |title=A Treatise on Diseases of the Sexual Organs |pages=158-165
* 1879 [[H.H. Kane]] 'discovers' that circumcision '''cures nocturnal emissions and abdominal neuralgia'''.<ref>{{Kane1879}}</ref> * 1881 [[Maximillian LandesburgLandesberg]] announces that circumcision '''cures eye problems''' that he believed were '''caused by [[masturbation]]'''.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Landesburg |first=Maximillian |init=M |title=On affections of the eye caused by masturbation |journal=Medical Bulletin |date=1881-04 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=79-81Landesberg1881}}</ref>
|location=
|archived=
|quote=
wikify puberty
|location=New York
|publisher=Stringer & CoPlenum |isbn=0-306-45589-7 |quote= |accessdate=2021-11-13 |note=}}</ref> Medical historians assume that circumcision already served in ancient history as a way to control the sexuality of slaves and members of the lower classes without compromising their ability to reproduce. In religious history circumcision may be seen as a substitute for human sacrifice. In prehistoric times it was not uncommon to placate the gods with human sacrifice. Castration of slaves or conquered enemies was common as well. Following religious changes this sacrifice was altered, and only a part of the very organ responsible for the creation of new life was sacrificed. [[Image:Circumcision Sakkara 3.jpg|200px|right]] For the [[Aborigines]], the [[Australia| Australian]] natives, the tradition of circumcision is said to go back to 10,000 BC. On the African continent, the first circumcisions are assumed to have emerged around 6000 BC. From ancient Egypt hints of various forms of circumcision date back to the time around 3000-2000 BC. The oldest known depiction<ref>{{REFweb |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Circumcision_Sakkara_3.jpg |title=File:Circumcision Sakkara 3.jpg |accessdate=20112019-0610-0912}}</ref>is an Egyptian tomb relief from the 6th dynasty, approximately 2300-2000 BC. It is not known precisely who was circumcised and why in those times. In many cultures circumcision during [[puberty]] serves as a rite of passage, bringing adolescents into the community. As with other painful or humiliating initiation rites, proof of courage and mastering of critical situations are the key motivations. From some African tribes it is also known that the [[amputation]] of the [[foreskin]] is seen as the removal of an inborn piece of femininity from the boys, thus making them men. ===Judaism=== In [[Judaism]], the tradition of [[Brit Milah| circumcision]] goes back to the [[Abrahamic covenant]] in a passage in the Book of Genesis (17:10-14). It was seen as a covenant between God and man, dating back to the patriarch Abraham.<ref name="Moses1871garrett2023">{{REFjournalREFweb |url=https://intactamerica.org/pros-and-cons-of-circumcision/ |title=Pros and Cons of Circumcision (Spoiler: You’ve Been Lied to) |last=MosesGarrett |first=Connor Judson |init=MJCJ |author-link=Connor Judson Garrett |publisher=Intact America |date=2023-11-10 |titleaccessdate=2024-05-15}}</ref> The value validity of this passage is increasingly being questioned. {{Citation |Text=10 This is my covenant with you and your descendants after you, the covenant you are to keep: Every male among you shall be circumcised. 11 You are to undergo circumcision as , and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and you. 12 For the generations to come every male among you who is eight days old must be circumcised, including those born in your household or bought with money from a hygienic and therapeutic measureforeigner—those who are not your offspring. 13 Whether born in your household or bought with your money, they must be circumcised. My covenant in your flesh is to be an everlasting covenant. 14 Any [[uncircumcised]] male, who has not been circumcised in the flesh, will be cut off from his people; he has broken my covenant.” |Author=Bible |journalSource=Gen 17, 10-14, NIV}} According to the anthropologist and sociologist Rabbi Nissan Rubin, the [[Jewish circumcision| Jewish form of circumcision]], called ''[[Brit Milah| brit mila]]'', during the first two millennia did not include the later customary ''[[periah]]'', namely the complete scraping of the inner [[foreskin]] from the [[Glans penis|glans]]. This was only added around 135 AD, to make it almost impossible to restore the [[foreskin]] by [[stretching]], which became popular in the wake of Hellenic influence. While originally only the tip of the [[foreskin]] was cut off, ''[[periah]]'' removes the entire [[foreskin]]. In the Greek society of the day, a denuded [[Glans penis|glans]] was considered obscene and risible. In ultra-orthodox communities, circumcision is followed by the ''[[mohel]]'', the ritual circumciser, sucking blood from the wound with his mouth. This practice is highly controversial, as it can result in an [[infection]] with [[herpes]] simplex type 1. In New York Medical JournalCity, between 2000 and 2011 eleven children were infected with [[herpes]], 10 of whom had to be treated in hospital. Two of them suffered permanent brain damage, two others died. In the 12th century, the Jewish philosopher and doctor [[Moses Maimonides| Maimonides]] claimed that circumcision was necessary, as it diminished sexual desires and reduced the pleasure to a degree just sufficient for mere reproduction. ===Christianity===Jesus was born into a Jewish family in [[Israel]], where [[Judaism]] was the prevailing religion, so He was [[circumcised]] on the eighth day.<ref>{{REFweb |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke+2%3A21&version=NASB |title=Gospel of Luke |last=Luke |first= |publisher=NASB |website=Bible Gateway |date=1871 |accessdate=2019-11-10 |format= |quote=And when eight days had passed, before His circumcision, His name was then called Jesus, the name given by the angel before He was conceived in the womb.}}</ref> The first Christians had been born Jewish, so a question arose whether one must be [[circumcised]] to be a Christian. When Christian leaders met at the [[Council at Jerusalem]] in the First Century to decide what was required to be a Christian, a letter was written to explain the requirements, but circumcision was omitted from the requirements.<ref>{{REFweb |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+15%3A1-30&version=NASB |title=Acts 15:1-30 |volumelast=14Luke |issuefirst=4 |pagesaccessdate=3682019-11-37410}}</ref> In Christianity, circumcision is practiced only in the Coptic denomination. There is no general belief that circumcision is a requirement of Christianity.<ref name="Kellogg1888hill2004">{{REFweb |url=https://www.cirp.org/pages/cultural/christian.php |title=The Holy Bible, Circumcision, False Prophets, and Christian Parents |last=Hill |first=George |author-link=George Hill |publisher=Circumcision Reference Library |website= |date=2004-08-29 |accessdate=2019-11-10 |format=HTML |quote=The falseness of those who advocate circumcision is a recurrent theme in the New Testament. }}</ref> Nevertheless, Christian moral notions had decisive influence on the spread of this practice. In the puritan influenced USA, circumcision of children was popular in the 19th century as a means to prevent [[masturbation]]. In those days, this so-called ‘self-abuse‘ was not only considered immoral, but was supposedly responsible for a variety of diseases. Masturbation, however, is not mentioned anywhere in the Holy Bible, so there is no support for the belief that it is somehow immoral or sinful. Even the mere existence of a [[foreskin]] was falsoly linked to many illnesses. Among them one could find syphilis, epilepsy, paralysis of the spine, bed wetting, scoliosis (spinal deformity), paralysis of the bladder, club foot, nerve pain in the lower abdomen, tuberculosis and lazy eye. One of the best known advocates of child circumcision was [[John Harvey Kellogg]], co-inventor of the corn flakes bearing his name. In 1888, he wrote: {{Citation |Text=A remedy which is almost always successful in small boys is circumcision, especially when there is any degree of [[phimosis]]. The operation should be performed by a surgeon without administering an anaesthetic, as the brief pain attending the operation will have a salutary effect upon the mind, especially if it be connected with the idea of punishment, as it may well be in some cases. In females, the author has found the application of pure carbolic acid to the [[clitoris]] an excellent means of allaying the abnormal excitement, and preventing the recurrence of the practice in those whose will-power has become so weakened that the patient is unable to exercise entire self-control. |Author=[[John Harvey Kellogg]] |Source= |ref=<ref>{{REFbook
|last=Kellogg
|first=John Harvey
|init=JH
|author-link=John Harvey Kellogg
|url=https://archive.org/details/plainfaorold00kell/page/290
|chapter=Treatment for Self-abuse and Its Effects
|title=Plain Facts for Old and Young
|location=Burlington, Iowa
|publisher=F. Segner & Co.
|year=1888
|titlepage=Plain Facts for Old and Young.107}}</ref>}} |url=http://etext==Islam===In [[Islam]], circumcision is also religiously founded, even though there is no mention of it in the Koran itself. According to tradition, the Prophet Mohammed was born without a [[foreskin]]. It is seen as a sign of prophets that they are born without a [[foreskin]] already.libIt is considered an honour to "resemble the example of the Prophet", meaning to be [[circumcised]].virginiaIn Islam, unlike [[Judaism]], there is no specific age at which the circumcision should be performed.edu/toc/modeng/public/KelPlaiMost circumcisions take place at ages between 6 and 10 years, but the range goes from birth to adulthood.html |editor=Project Gutenberg |edition=1881 edition |chapter=Treatment Many Americans are surprised to hear that [[circumcision]] (the surgical removal of the [[foreskin]]) is uncommon in the western world. Foreigners are often shocked when they first hear that the practice of circumcision even exists in the United States. Circumcision was first introduced in the [[United States]] by an anti-sexual Victorian initiative which began during the 1830’s. Numerous publications from the 1830’s to times even as late as the 1970’s had advocated for Self-Abuse circumcision as a means to prevent [[masturbation]], and to permanently desensitize, denude, and Its Effects |locationimmobilize the penis.<ref name="Lallemand">{{Lallemand1836}}</ref><ref name=Burlington, Iowa |publisher"Dixon">{{Dixon1845}}</ref><ref name=F. Segner & Co |accessdate"Moses1871">{{Moses1871}}</ref><ref name=2011-03-21"Kellogg1888">{{Kellogg1888}}</ref><ref name="Hutchinson1891">{{REFjournal
|last=Hutchinson
|first=Jonathan
|issue=9
|pages=26,76-78
}}</ref><ref name="MillerSnyder1953">{{REFjournal |last=Miller |init=RL |last2=Snyder |init2=DC |title=Immediate circumcision of the newborn male |journal=American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology |date=1953-01 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=1-11MillerSnyder1953}}</ref><ref name="Fishbein1969">{{REFbook |last=Fishbein |first=Morris |author-link=Morris Fishbein |year=1969 |title=Modern Home Medical Adviser |url= |work= |editor=Garden City |edition= |volume= |chapter=Sex hygiene |pages=90+119 |location=New York |publisher=Doubleday & CoFishbein1969}}</ref><ref>{{REFbook
|last=Campbell
|first=M.F.
|init=MF
|year=1970
|title=Urology
|editoreditors=M.F. Campbell and & J.H. Harrison
|edition=3
|volume= 2
|chapter=The Male Genital Tract and the Female Urethra
|page=1836
[[Image:FGC.jpeg|right|thumb|From Historical American Female Circumcision medical papers]]
Circumcision advocates quickly moved on to manufacture a number of outrageous health claims. These claims were tailored to the fears and anxieties of the day. Circumcision has been claimed to cure epilepsy, convulsions, paralysis, elephantiasis, tuberculosis, eczema, bed-wetting, hip-joint disease, fecal incontinence, rectal prolapse, wet dreams, hernia, headaches, nervousness, hysteria, poor eyesight, idiocy, mental retardation, insanity, strabismus, hydrocephalus, clubfoot, cancer, STD’s, UTI’s, etc.<ref>F{{REFbook |last=Hodges |first=Frederick A. A |init=FA |author-link=Frederick M. Hodges, " |chapter=Short History of the Institutionalization of Involuntary Sexual Mutilation in the United States," in |editors=[[George C. Denniston|G. C. Denniston and ]] & [[Marilyn Fayre Milos|M. F. Milos, eds., ]] |title=Sexual Mutilations: A Human Tragedy ( |location=New York: |publisher=Plenum Press, |year=1997) |page=35}}</ref> [[Masturbation]] was a major focus of Victorian doctors.<ref name="self2016">{{REFjournal |url=https://journals.troy.edu/index.php/test/article/view/386/302 |title=The Rise of Circumcision in Victorian America |first=Eleanor |last=Self |author-link=Eleanor Self |journal=The Alexandrian |volume=5 |issue=1 |date=2016 |accessdate=2022-09-02 |format=PDF}}</ref> When gentiles in Germany criticized the Jewish practice of [[Brit Milah| ritual circumcision]] as "barbaric", 35Jewish doctors in Germany invented false claims that circumcision could prevent a variety of diseases.<ref>{{REFbook |last=Ephron |first=John M. |init=JM |year=2001 |title=Medicine and the German Jews |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203164223/http://www.cirp.org/library/history/ephron1/ |pages=222-3 |isbn=0-300-08377-7 |accessdate=2021-10-30 }}</ref>American Jewish doctors exhibited similar behavior.
Doctors were eager to claim that they could prevent and cure many of these aliments, conditions and diseases because there were no treatments available then. Even though all of these claims have been throughly discredited, circumcision has remained a solution in search of a problem ever since. Many Americans are surprised to find out that female genital cutting ([[FGC]]) shares a strikingly similar history in the United States.
|volume=7
|pages=31-33
}}</ref><ref name="Dawson1915">{{REFjournal |last=Dawson |first=Benjamin E. |init=BE |title=Circumcision in the Female: Its Necessity and How to Perform It |journal=American Journal of Clinical Medicine |date=1915-06 |volume=22 |issue=66 |pages=520-523Dawson1915}}</ref><ref name="Eskridge1918">{{Eskridge1918}}</ref><ref name="McDonald1958">{{REFjournal |last=McDonald |init=CF |title=Circumcision of the female |journal=General Practitioner |date=1958-09 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=98-99McDonald1958}}</ref><ref name="Rathmann1959">{{Rathmann1959}}</ref>
[[FGC]] was even covered by Blue Cross Blue Shield until 1977. Nowadays, many forms of [[FGC]] are now considered forms of female genital mutilation ([[FGM]]), which are banned in all western countries.
=== 19th century ===
* 1832 1836 [[Claude-Francois François Lallemand]] circumcises a patient to '''cure''' him '''from nocturnal seminal emissions''' (i.e. wet dreams).<ref name="Lallemand"/>
* 1845 [[Edward H. Dixon]] declares that circumcision '''prevents [[masturbation]]'''.<ref name="Dixon"/>
}}</ref>
* 1865 [[Nathaniel Heckford]] claims that circumcision '''cures epilepsy'''.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Heckford |first=Nathaniel |init=N |title=Circumcision as a remedial measure in certain cases of epilepsy and chorea |journal=Clinical Lectures and Reports by the Medical and Surgical Staff of the London Hospital |date=1865 |volume=2 |pages=58-64Heckford1865}}</ref>
* 1870 [[Lewis A. Sayre]] publishes a paper 'proving' that circumcision '''cures epilepsy'''.<ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref>
* 1871 [[M.J. Moses]] declares that Jews are '''immune to [[masturbation]] because of circumcision'''.<ref name="Moses1871"/>
* 1873 [[Joseph Bell]] announces his discovery that circumcision '''cures bed wetting'''.<ref>{{Bell1873}}</ref>
|pages=255-274
}}</ref>
* 1876 T.K. Cheyne in The Encyclopedia Brittanica reports no medical purpose, only a Jewish religious reason for circumcision.<ref>{{REFweb
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/history/encyclopaediabritannica1876/
|title=Circumcision
|last=Cheyne
|first=
|init=TK
|author-link=
|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th Ed
|date=1876
|accessdate=2025-03-13
}}</ref>
* 1879 [[H. H. Kane]] 'discovers' that circumcision '''cures nocturnal emissions and abdominal neuralgia'''.<ref>{{Kane1879}}</ref>
* 1886 [[William G. Eggleston]] declares that '''foreskin causes crossed eyes'''.<ref>{{Eggleston1886}}</ref>
* 1888 [[John Harvey Kellogg]] promotes '''circumcision as punishment''' for boys to discourage them from masturbating.<ref>{{REFbook |last=Kellogg |first=John Harvey |year=1888 |title=Plain Facts for Old and Young |url=https://archive.org/details/plainfaorold00kell/page/390 |pages=107 |location=Burlington, Iowa |publisher=F. Segner & Co |accessdate=2019-09-24Kellogg1888}}</ref>
* 1890 [[William D. Gentry]] declares that circumcision '''cures blindness, deafness and dumbness.'''<ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref>
* 1894 [[P.C. Peter Charles Remondino]] says '''circumcising blacks will help prevent them from raping whites'''.<ref name="Remondino1894"/>
* 1894 [[H.L. Rosenberry]] publishes paper 'proving' that circumcision '''cures urinary and rectal incontinence'''.<ref>{{Rosenberry1894}}</ref>
* 1898 [[T. Scott McFarland]] says he has "circumcised as many girls as boys, and always with happy results."<ref name="McFarland1898"/>
}}</ref>
* 1930 [[Norton Henry Bare]] claims that he has cured a boy of '''epilepsy''' and '''bed-wetting''' by circumcising him.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Bare |first=Norton Henry |init=NH |title=Surgical treatment of epilepsy with report of case |journal=The China Medical Journal |date=1930-11 |volume=4 |issue=11 |pages=1109-1113Bare1930}}</ref>
[[File:Single_mogen.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Gomco|Gomco]] and [[Mogen|Mogen]] clamps.]]
* 1934 [[Aaron Goldstein]] and [[Hiram S. Yellen]] invent and mass market the [[Gomco]] clamp which makes it easier for doctors to cut off even more [[skin ]] than in traditional circumcisions.<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Goldstein |first=Aaron |init=A |last2=Yellen |first2=Hiram S. |init2=HS |title=Bloodless circumcision of the newborn |journal=American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology |date=1935-07 |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=146-147GoldsteinYellen1935}}</ref>
* 1935 [[R. W. Cockshut]] demands that all boys be circumcised in order to '''desensitize the penis and promote chastity'''.<ref name="Cockshut1935"/>
* 1951 [[Abraham Ravich]] invents claims that circumcision prevents '''cervical cancer in women'''.<ref>{{Ravich1951}}</ref>
* 1953 [[R.Richard L. Miller]] and [[D.Donald C. Snyder]] unleash their plans to circumcise all male babies immediately after birth while still in the delivery room to '''prevent [[masturbation]]''' and '''provide "immunity to nearly all physical and mental illness."'''<ref name="MillerSnyder1953"/>
* 1954 [[Ernest L. Wynder]] claims that male circumcision '''prevents cervical cancer in women.'''<ref>{{Wynder1954}}</ref>
* 1956 [[Raymond Creelman]] invents the [[Circumstraint]] which straps down and immobilizes the baby's arms and legs.<ref>{{REFdocument
|title=USPTO patent number RE24,377
|publisher=USPTO
}}</ref>
* 1958 [[C.Christine F. McDonald]] says "the same reasons that apply for the circumcision of males are generally valid when considered for the female."<ref name="McDonald1958"/>
* 1959 [[W.G. Rathmann]] finds that among the many benefits of female circumcision is that it will '''make the [[clitoris ]] easier for the husband to find'''.<ref name="Rathmann1959"/>
* 1966 Masters and Johnson erroneous claim that there is '''no difference in sensitivity between penises with and without [[foreskin]]'''.<br>(Note: Their work helps propagate the medical dogma that [[circumcision]] has no effect on sexuality go practically unquestioned for nearly the next four decades.)<ref>{{REFbook
|last=Masters and & Johnson
|year=1966
|title=Human Sexual Response
|location=Boston, MA
|publisher=Little Brown & Co.
}}</ref>
* 1971 [[Abraham Ravich]] claims that circumcision prevents cancer of the bladder and the rectum.<ref>{{Ravich1971}}</ref>
* 1971 The [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] Committee on [[Fetus ]] and Newborn issues a warning to the Nation that, "There are no valid medical indications for circumcision in the neonatal period."<ref>{{REFbook
|last=Evanston
|first=Ill
|init=I
|year=1971
|title=Hospital Care of Newborn Infants
}}</ref>
* 1973 [[R. Dagher]], [[Melvin Selzer]], and [[Jack Lapides]] declare that anyone who disagrees with their agenda to impose mass [[circumcision ]] on America is deluded.<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Dagher
|init=R
|last=Spock
|first=Benjamin
|init=B
|title=Baby and Child Care
|pages=1946-1976
}}</ref>
* 1986 [[Aaron J. Fink]] claims that circumcision '''prevents [[AIDS]]'''.<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Fink
|first=Aaron J.
}}</ref>
* 1996 [[J.John R. Taylor]] finds that the average amount of amputated foreskin was nearly half of the total [[penile skin]].<ref>{{TaylorJR LockwoodAP TaylorAJ 1996}}</ref>
* 1997 [[Edgar J. Schoen]] tries and fails once again to convince European countries to institute mass circumcision.<ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref>
* 1997 [[Janice Lander]] discovers that '''circumcision without anesthesia is traumatic for babies'''.<br>(Note: Before this, almost all infant circumcisions were done without anesthetic due to the prevalent belief among circumcisers that babies are not capable of feeling significant pain and if they could it doesn't matter since they won't be able to remember it.)<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Lander |first=Janice |init=J |author-link=Janice Lander |title=Comparison of ring block, dorsal penile nerve block, and topical anesthesia for neonatal circumcision |journal=Journal of the American Medical Association |date=LanderJ etal 1997-12 |volume=274 |issue=24 |pages=2157-2162 |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/pain/lander/}}</ref>
* 1998 [[Howard J. Stang]], inventor of an upright circumcision restraint fails to mention this conflict of interest in his article promoting infant circumcision.<ref>{{REFjournal
* 1999 The [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] Task Force on Circumcision, after reviewing 40 years worth of medical studies, concluded that the "potential medical benefits of newborn male circumcision... are not sufficient to recommend routine neonatal circumcision." This report is also the first time the AAP has acknowledged (after decades of doctors mindlessly repeating the belief that babies don't feel significant pain) that circumcision without anesthesia is traumatic and if circumcision is to be done, anesthesia should be used. Here are some highlights from the report:
::'''Role of Hygiene:''' "there is little evidence to affirm the association between circumcision status and optimum penile hygiene."
::'''STDs including [[HIV]]:''' "behavioral factors appear to be far more important than circumcision status."
::'''Penile Cancer:''' "in a developed country such as the United States, penile cancer is a rare disease and the risk of penile cancer developing in an [[uncircumcised]] man, although increased compared with a circumcised man, is low."
::'''Urinary Tract Infections:''' "breastfeeding was shown to have a threefold protective effect on the incidence of UTI in a sample of [[uncircumcised]] infants. However, breastfeeding status has not been evaluated systematically in studies assessing UTI and circumcision status." meaning that the earlier UTIs studies results were confounded. Even if their numbers were accurate, in order to prevent one UTI during the first year of life by circumcising a baby boy, approximately 195 babies who will not get a UTI would need to be circumcised. Also infant girls commonly develop UTIs(in some studies at even higher rates than infant boys) and the standard treatment for them is antibiotics which works just as well for infant boys with UTIs. The AAP concludes this section noting that "the absolute risk of developing a UTI in an [[uncircumcised]] male infant is low (at most, ~1%)".
=== 21st century ===
* 2002 [[W.K. Nahm]] extends the storage life of specialized cell cultures derived from "freshly harvested neonatal foreskin tissue."<br>(Note: Since the 1980s, some amputated infant foreskins have been sold without the knowledge of the parents to biomedical companies for research and even use in commercial cosmetic products such as anti-wrinkle creams.)<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Nahm
|init=WK
}}</ref>
* 2003 [[Edgar J. Schoen]] steps up pressure on [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] to reverse its policy on circumcision, falsely claiming that circumcision prevents [[AIDS]].<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=Schoen
|first=Edgar J.
}}</ref>
* 2005 [[R.Y. Stallings]] finds that [[HIV ]] rates are significantly lower in circumcised women.<br>(Note: There was no WHO call for mass female circumcision to help prevent [[AIDS]].)<ref>{{REFconferenceStallings2005}}</ref> |place=Rio de Janeiro |title=Female * 2007 [[Robert C. Bailey]] ends his study early with the conclusion '''touting circumcision and as a 'vaccine' that prevents [[HIV ]] infection in Tanzania'''.<br>(Note: for better or for worse? This and other similar studies were widely reported throughout the American media.)<ref>{{RCT Bailey et al 2007}}</ref> |last=Stallings |first=R* 2007 [[Lot de Witte]] finds that '''[[Langerhans cells]] found in the foreskin are a natural barrier to [[HIV]] infection'''.Y<br>(Note: This and other similar studies were widely ignored throughout the American media. |source=Third International AIDS Society Conference on HIV Pathogenesis and Treatment |date=2005-07-25 |note=25-27 July 2005 |accessdate=)<ref>{{DeWitte etal 2007}}</ref>
* 2007 [[Robert CMorris L. BaileySorrells]] ends his study early with the conclusion ''et al.'touting circumcision as a 'vaccine' tests the relative sensitivity of the [[penis]] and finds that prevents HIV infectionthe '''.<br>(Note: This [[foreskin]] is the most sensitive part of the [[penis]] and other similar studies were widely reported throughout the American media[[glans]] is the least'''.)<ref>{{REFjournal |last=Bailey |first=Robert C. |init=RC |author-link=Robert C. Bailey |title=Male circumcision for HIV prevention for young men in Kisumu, Kenya |journal=Lancet |date=Sorrells etal 2007 |volume=369 |issue=9562 |pages=643-656}}</ref>
* 2007 2012 The [[L. de WitteAmerican Academy of Pediatrics]] finds that '''(AAP), a [[Langerhans cellsmedical trade association]] found in the foreskin are a natural barrier to HIV infection'''.<br>(Note: This and other similar studies were widely ignored throughout the American media.)<ref>{{REFjournal |last=de Witte |init=L |author-link=L. de Witte |title=Langerin is , issued a natural barrier to HIVself-1 transmission by Langerhans cells |journal=Nature Medicine |issue=13 |pages=367serving pro-371 |url=http://icgi.org/Downloads/IAS/de_Wittecircumcision policy statement.pd |date=2007 |accessdate=2019-09-24}}</ref>
* 2007 2017 The [[Morris L. SorrellsAmerican Academy of Pediatrics]] ''et al.'' tests (AAP) allowed its Circumcision Policy Statement to expire with being re-affirmed due to the relative sensitivity of the penis severe and finds that the '''foreskin is the most sensitive part of the penis and the glans is the least'''unrelenting adverse comment from many sources. The AAP now has NO official position on child circumcision.<ref>{{Sorrells etal 2007}}</ref>
{{SEEALSO}}
* [[Abraham L. Wolbarst|Abraham Leo Wolbarst]]
* [[United Kingdom]]
* [[United States of America]]
{{LINKS}}
|accessdate=2020-06-06
}}
* {{REFjournal |last=Gollaher |first=David L. |init=DL |author-link= |title=From ritual to science: the medical transformation of circumcision in America |journal=Journal of Social History |date=GollaherDL 1994-09 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=5-36 |url=http://www.cirp.org/library/history/gollaher/ |accessdate=2020-05-21}}
* {{REFjournal
|last=Dunsmuir
|author2-link=
|etal=no
|title-=The history of circumcision |trans-title= |language=
|journal=BJU Int
|date=1999-01-01
|volume=83 Suppl 1 |issue= |article= |page=Suppl 1
|pages=1-12
|url=http://www.cirp.org/library/history/dunsmuir1/?source=post_page--
|pubmedID=1034940
|pubmedCID=
|last=Ephron
|first=John M.
|init=JM
|author-link=
|year=2001
|chapter=
|pages=222-233
|location=New Haven, {{USSC|CT}} |publisher={{UNI|Yale University |Yale}} Press
|isbn=0-300-08377-7
|quote=
|first=Jonathan D.
|author-link=
|publisher={{UNI|DePaul University|DePaul}}
|location=Chicago
|format=PDF
|format=
|quote=
}}
* {{REFweb
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516074843/http://www.historyofcircumcision.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=category§ionid=8&id=73&Itemid=52
|title=History of Circumcision
|last=
|first=
|date=2011
|accessdate=2022-01-10
}}
[[Category:From Intactipedia]]
[[Category:From IntactWiki]]
[[de:Geschichte der Beschneidung]]