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"Male '''circumcision''' (from Latin ''circumcidere'', meaning "to cut around") is the surgical removal or [[amputation]] of the [[foreskin]] (prepuce), a major part of the human [[penis]]. Circumcision amputates ''more than fifty percent'' of the epithelium of the [[penis]].<ref name="taylor1996">{{TaylorJR LockwoodAP TaylorAJ 1996}}</ref> When the "cutting around" is performed, the foreskin falls off, so [[amputation]] and [[mutilation]] is the result, leaving the delicate and sensitive mucosa of the [[glans penis]] exposed and unprotected against [[trauma]] and [[infection]]. The amputation destroys the [[Foreskin#Physiological_functions| many protective, immunological, sexual, and sensory physiological functions]] of the foreskin, so it is a very harmful and [[Pain| painful]] surgery.<ref name="garrett2023-11-10">{{REFweb
"Male '''circumcision''' (from Latin ''circumcidere'', meaning "to cut around") is the surgical removal or [[amputation]] of the [[foreskin]] (prepuce), a major part of the human [[penis]]. The foreskin comprises ''more than fifty percent'' of the epithelium of the [[penis]].<ref name="taylor1996">{{TaylorJR LockwoodAP TaylorAJ 1996}}</ref> When the "cutting around" is performed, the foreskin falls off, so [[amputation]] and [[mutilation]] is the result. The amputation destroys the [[Foreskin#Physiological_functions| many protective, immunological, sexual, and sensory physiological functions]] of the foreskin, so it is a very harmful and [[Pain| painful]] surgery.<ref name="garrett2023-11-10">{{REFweb
  |url=https://intactamerica.org/pros-and-cons-of-circumcision/
  |url=https://intactamerica.org/pros-and-cons-of-circumcision/
  |title=Pros and Cons of Circumcision (Spoiler: You’ve Been Lied to)
  |title=Pros and Cons of Circumcision (Spoiler: You’ve Been Lied to)
Line 11: Line 10:
  |accessdate=2024-06-02
  |accessdate=2024-06-02
}}</ref>
}}</ref>
Circumcision of boys in the [[United States]] hit its high point in 1965 and has been slowly declining in popularity ever since. Less than 1/2 of the newborn boys in the United States were [[circumcised]] in 2022. Yang et al. (2025) reported the rate of decline in the incidence of infant circumcision in their study period was 5/10s of one percent per year.<ref name="yang2025">{{REFjournal
|last=Yang
|first=
|init=P
|author-link=
|last2=Zhu
|first2=
|init2=X
|author2-link=
|last3=Patel
|first3=
|init3=EU
|author3-link=
|last4=Quin
|first4=
|init4=PC
|author4-link=
|last5=Grabowski
|first5=
|init5=MK
|author5-link=
|last6=Tobian
|first6=
|init6=AAR
|author6-link=Aaron Tobian
|etal=no
|title=Trends in Circumcision Among Newborn Males in the US
|trans-title=
|language=
|journal=JAMA Pediatrics
|location=
|date=2025-10-02
|season=
|volume=
|issue=
|article=e252464
|page=
|pages=
|url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2838312
|archived=
|quote=
|pubmedID=40952753
|pubmedCID=12439174
|DOI=10.1001/jamapediatrics.2025.2464
|accessdate=2025-09-17
}}</ref> That long-term declining trend is believed to have continued.


'''Posthectomy''' is the more accurate medical term that more accurately reflects the injury and loss of functional body tissue, but the Biblical [[euphemism]], ''circumcision'', is more commonly used.
'''Posthectomy''' is the more accurate medical term that more accurately reflects the injury and loss of functional body tissue, but the Biblical [[euphemism]], ''circumcision'', is more commonly used.
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}}</ref> These findings are not surprising since the human [[foreskin]] provides both [[Immunological and protective function of the foreskin| protective and immunological functions]] against both physical [[trauma]] and [[infection]]. Obviously, [[circumcised]] boys lack these protections.
}}</ref> These findings are not surprising since the human [[foreskin]] provides both [[Immunological and protective function of the foreskin| protective and immunological functions]] against both physical [[trauma]] and [[infection]]. Obviously, [[circumcised]] boys lack these protections.


Circumcision was popularized in English-speaking nations in the nineteenth century. The practice of non-therapeutic circumcision of boys now has greatly declined in [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. It has been gradually declining since 1985 in the [[United States]]. It has ''never'' been a popular practice in other western nations. Circumcision of boys is not done in the Russian Federation, Latin America, or [[China]]. In [[India]] only the minority Muslim population does circumcision of children. In Europe it is only done for religious reasons by Muslims and Jews.
[[Dan Bollinger]] (2025) enumerated the many harms and injuries caused by medically-unnecessary, non-therapeutic [[circumcision of the newborn]], its inherent violation of [[human rights]] and its degradation of health and well-being.<ref name="bollinger2025-08-27">{{REFdocument
|title=Policy Paper: Newborn Circumcision as a Negative Wellness Factor
|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/394517060_Policy_Paper_Newborn_Circumcision_as_a_Negative_Wellness_Factor
|contribution=
|last=Bollinger
|first=Dan
|publisher=Research Gate
|format=PDF
|date=2025-08
|accessdate=2025-08-29
}}</ref>
==Design of circumcision procedure==
The circumcision procedure carried out by medical doctors today is essentially the same as that mandated by Jewish rabbis in about 140 C.E.


Circumcision is classified as a form of [[genital mutilation]].
The original Jewish circumcision as mandated by Joshua at [[Gilgal]] consisted only of cutting off the overhanging portion of the [[foreskin]] that protruded beyond the [[glans penis]] with the aid of a protective device to prevent cutting the glans penis.


== Rationale ==
Jewish men who wished to appear as Greeks found that they could restore their natural covered appearance of their [[penis]] by a process called [[epispasm]]. This angered the rabbis who then developed a second stage of the ritual circumcision procedure called ''periah''.


Reasons for performing circumcision range widely by culture, religion, location, and age.
[[Periah]] according to James Peron (2000):


===Cultural===
<blockquote>
Periah consists of tearing and stripping back the remaining inner mucosal lining of the foreskin from the glans and then, by use of a sharp finger nail or implement, removing all of the inner mucosal tissue, including the excising and removal of the [[frenulum]] from the underside of the [[glans]]. The objective was to insure that no part of the remaining penile skin would rest against the glans corona. If any shreds of the mucosal [[foreskin]] tissue remained, or rejoined to the underside of the glans, the child was to be re-circumcised.<ref name="peron2000">{{REFjournal
|last=Peron
|init=JE
|author-link=James Peron
|url=https://cirp.org/library/history/peron2/
|title=Circumcision: then and now
|journal=Many Blessings
|date=2000
|season=Spring
|volume=III
|issue=
|pages=41-2
|accessdate=2023-08-23
}}</ref>
</blockquote>


Many cultures perform circumcision as a rite of passage into manhood. This is common in the Middle East and amongst some indigenous African and Southeast Asian peoples.
The objective was to increase the loss of tissue and amount in harm and injury to the point where it would be impossible to recover the [[glans penis]]. This procedure, which caused maximum injury and harm, was the procedure adopted by the medical profession in the nineteenth century and is still used today by medical doctors.


The [[United States]] and [[Israel]] are the only industrialized countries in the world to have a high incidence of non-therapeutic infant male circumcision. The vast majority of infant circumcisions performed in the United States are for non-religious, non-medical reasons. See [[History of circumcision]].
==Condemnation of child circumcision==
 
[[Alfonso Cepeda-Emiliani| Cepeda-Emiliani]] et al. {2025) stated:
===Religious===
<blockquote>
The circumcision of newborn boys is seen as a [[Abrahamic covenant| divine commandment]] in the [[Judaism| Jewish faith]]. Though absent in the Koran, male circumcision is considered a religious requirement in [[Islam]], and it is performed on male children of varying ages. Converts to these faiths may also choose to undergo [[Adolescent and adult circumcision| circumcision]], but it is not always required.
Our results reinforce the relevance of [https://www.cirp.org/library/anatomy/cold-taylor/ Cold and Taylor’s 11 1999 conclusions] (p. 42), which now seem more pertinent than ever: “The prepuce
 
is a specialized, specific erogenous tissue in both males and females.
=== Medical indication ===
Therefore, surgical excision should be restricted to lesions that are
There are no [[medical indication| medical indications]] for circumcision of the newborn.<ref name="aap1971">{{REFbook
unresponsive to medical therapy. . . Preputial plasty should be considered in place of circumcision whenever possible, so as to preserve
  |last=American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Fetus and Newborn
the corpuscular sensory receptors, dartos muscle, penile mucosa and
complete function of the penis. . . Although a Fourcroy grade 1 female
circumcision would excise less tissue than in a male, this comparison cannot be used to justify female circumcision. Excision of normal,
erogenous genital tissue from healthy male or female children cannot
be condoned, as the histology confirms that the external genitalia are
specialized sensory tissues. . . Removal of normal genital anatomy in
children and infants should be deferred until the individual can make an
informed decision. If external genital tissue must be excised to combat
a disease process that threatens the child’s health, and is unresponsive
to medical therapy, then the amount of tissue should be limited so as to
preserve the anatomy and function of the external genitalia.”<ref name="cepeda2025">{{REFjournal
  |last=Cepeda-Emiliani
  |first=
  |first=
  |init=
  |init=A
  |year=1971
  |author-link=Alfonso Cepeda-Emiliani
  |title=Standards and Recommendation for Hospital Care of Newborn infants
|last2=Otero-Alén
  |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aap/#a1971
|first2=
  |scope=
|init2=M
  |location=Evanston
|author2-link=
  |publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics
|last3=Suárez-Quintanilla
  |ISBN=
|first3=
  |accessdate=2025-03-13
|init3=J
}}</ref> The [[circumcision industry]] offers circumcision of the newborn to the public because of the [[financial incentive]].
|author3-link=
|last4=Gándara-Cortés
|first4=
|init4=M
|author4-link=
|last5=García-Caballero
|first5=
|init5=T
|author5-link=
|last6=García-Caballero
|first6=
|init6=R
|author6-link=
|last7=García-Caballero
|first7=
|init7=L
|author7-link=
|etal=no
  |title=The sensory penis: A comprehensive immunohistological and ontogenetic exploration of human penile innervation
|trans-title=
|journal=Andrology
|date=2025-09-19
|volume=
|issue=
|article=
|pages=1-41
  |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/andr.70118
  |archived=
  |quote=
  |pubmedID=40970806
  |pubmedCID=
|DOI=10.1111/andr.70118
  |accessdate=2025-10-01
}}</ref>
</blockquote>


The form of circumcision adopted by the medical community essentially was equivalent to the Jewish form with ''[[periah]]'', so it inflicts the maximum injury and physical [[trauma]].
==History==
Circumcision was popularized in English-speaking nations in the nineteenth century. The practice of non-therapeutic circumcision of boys now has greatly declined in [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. It has been gradually declining since 1980 in the [[United States]]. It has ''never'' been a popular practice in other western nations. Circumcision of boys is not done in the Russian Federation, Latin America, or [[China]]. In [[India]] only the minority Muslim population does circumcision of children. In Europe it is only done for religious reasons by Muslims and Jews.


In a few cases  with older patients, circumcision is legitimately indicated; a patient may be suffering recurring [[infection]], and other methods of treatment have failed. In other cases, a patient may be suffering from a severe case of [[phimosis]]. Overall, the actual medical necessity for circumcision is extremely rare since many conditions respond to conservative treatment. All circumcisions injure the patient by amputating the [[foreskin]] its with many protective, immunological, sensory, and sexual [[Foreskin#Physiological_functions| functions]].
Circumcision is classified as a form of [[genital mutilation]].
<!--
== Rationale ==


# '''Deformed or malformed foreskin'''. A foreskin so deformed or malformed that it does not function properly may be excised by circumcision.
Reasons for performing circumcision range widely by culture, religion, location, and age.
-->


# '''Traumatically injured foreskin'''. A foreskin so traumatically damaged that it cannot be surgically repaired is a valid medical reason for circumcision.
===Cultural===


# '''Diseased foreskin.''' A foreskin that is diseased is a valid indication for circumcision. Some diseases that qualify are malignancy, lichen sclerosis, [[Balanitis#Diabetic_males| yeast infection in men with diabetes]], and recurrent [[balanoposthitis]].
Many cultures perform circumcision as a rite of passage into manhood. This is common in the Middle East and amongst some indigenous African and Southeast Asian peoples.
 
The [[United States]] and [[Israel]] are the only industrialized countries in the world to have a high incidence of non-therapeutic infant male circumcision. The vast majority of infant circumcisions performed in the [[United States]] are for non-religious, non-medical reasons. See [[History of circumcision]].
 
=== No medical indication ===
There are no [[medical indication| medical indications]] for [[circumcision of the newborn]].<ref name="aap1971">{{REFbook
|last=American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Fetus and Newborn
|first=
|init=
|year=1971
|title=Standards and Recommendation for Hospital Care of Newborn infants
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aap/#a1971
|scope=
|location=Evanston
|publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics
|ISBN=
|accessdate=2025-03-13
}}</ref> The [[circumcision industry]] promotes [[circumcision of the newborn]] to the public because of the [[financial incentive]] to the doctor and to the maternity hospital.
 
The form of circumcision adopted by the medical community essentially was equivalent to the Jewish form with ''[[periah]]'', so it inflicts the maximum injury and physical [[trauma]].
 
In a few cases  with older patients, circumcision is legitimately indicated; a patient may be suffering recurring [[infection]], and other methods of treatment have failed. In other cases, a patient may be suffering from a severe case of [[phimosis]]. Overall, the actual medical necessity for circumcision is extremely rare since many conditions respond to conservative treatment. All circumcisions injure the patient by amputating the [[foreskin]] its with many protective, immunological, sensory, and sexual [[Foreskin#Physiological_functions| functions]]. 
 
# '''Deformed or malformed foreskin'''. A foreskin so deformed or malformed that it does not function properly may be excised by circumcision.
 
# '''Traumatically injured foreskin'''. A foreskin so traumatically damaged that it cannot be surgically repaired is a valid medical reason for circumcision.
 
# '''Diseased foreskin.''' A foreskin that is diseased may be a valid indication for circumcision. Some diseases that qualify are [[gangrene]], malignancy, lichen sclerosis, [[Balanitis#Diabetic_males| yeast infection in men with diabetes]], and recurrent [[balanoposthitis]].


In such cases, the benefit of removing the problem foreskin may exceed the maleficial harms of tissue and function destruction.
In such cases, the benefit of removing the problem foreskin may exceed the maleficial harms of tissue and function destruction.
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An ever-recurring element of initiation rites found in many different cultures is the fixation upon the genitalia.
An ever-recurring element of initiation rites found in many different cultures is the fixation upon the genitalia.


It reflects the fascination that emerges from the ability to create new life. In most cultures, fertility is seen as the most precious good, and the body parts involved frequently find themselves in the focus of ritual acts. In many parts of the world, those rites take place when the boy reaches puberty, and are meant to symbolize his transition from boy to man. The removal of the male [[foreskin]] is just one of many phenomena that developed in this context. They range from the removal of the frenulum in boys and men through partial or complete removal of the [[foreskin]] up to radical operations. Australian [[Aborigines]], as mentioned above, have their [[foreskin]]s removed. It is also usual that, a few weeks later, young men have their [[penis]]es sliced open in a [[subincision]], resulting in a partly or completely divided [[urethra]].
It reflects the fascination that emerges from the ability to create new life. In most cultures, fertility is seen as the most precious good, and the body parts involved frequently find themselves in the focus of ritual acts. In many parts of the world, those rites take place when the boy reaches [[puberty]], and are meant to symbolize his transition from boy to man. The removal of the male [[foreskin]] is just one of many phenomena that developed in this context. They range from the removal of the frenulum in boys and men through partial or complete removal of the [[foreskin]] up to radical operations. Australian [[Aborigines]], as mentioned above, have their [[foreskin]]s removed. It is also usual that, a few weeks later, young men have their [[penis]]es sliced open in a [[subincision]], resulting in a partly or completely divided [[urethra]].


Another known, particularly massive, intervention is the stripping of the entire [[skin]] off the [[penis]]. In Indonesia, boys have metal or bamboo balls inserted into their [[penis]] shaft or [[Glans penis|glans]] at the beginning of puberty, which form little "humps".
Another known, particularly massive, intervention is the stripping of the entire [[skin]] off the [[penis]]. In Indonesia, boys have metal or bamboo balls inserted into their [[penis]] shaft or [[Glans penis|glans]] at the beginning of [[puberty]], which form little "humps".


For many cultures it is also common to perform similar rituals on girls. This can range from relatively small interventions such as piercing or cutting the clitoral hood, to its complete removal and up to radical removal of clitoral hood, [[clitoris]], inner and outer labia followed by sewing up the vagina.
For many cultures it is also common to perform similar rituals on girls. This can range from relatively small interventions such as piercing or cutting the clitoral hood, to its complete removal and up to radical removal of clitoral hood, [[clitoris]], inner and outer labia followed by sewing up the vagina.
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-->
-->


=== Prophylactic reasons ===
=== Prophylactic claims are false ===


Some people claim that circumcision has prophylactic benefits. Especially in the [[USA]] those arguments have persisted for more then a 100 years, with ever changing diseases circumcision is said to protect against. At first, these were diseases where [[masturbation]] was believed to be the cause. After bacteria and viruses had been discovered, arguments changed, and one after another miscellaneous diseases were cited.
Some people claim that circumcision has prophylactic benefits. Especially in the [[USA]] those arguments have persisted for more then a 100 years, with ever changing diseases circumcision is said to protect against. At first, these were diseases where [[masturbation]] was believed to be the cause. After bacteria and viruses had been discovered, arguments changed, and one after another miscellaneous diseases were cited.
Line 470: Line 619:
  |issue=12
  |issue=12
  |pages=1521-8
  |pages=1521-8
  |url=
  |url=https://journals.lww.com/aidsonline/abstract/1992/12000/the_epidemiology_of_hiv_1_infection_in_urban.16.aspx
  |accessdate=
  |accessdate=2025-03-17
}}</ref><ref>{{REFconference
}}</ref> <ref>{{REFconference
  |last=Changedia SM, Gilada IS
  |last=Changedia SM, Gilada IS
  |first=
  |first=
Line 496: Line 645:
  |first=
  |first=
  |title=Prevalence of male circumcision and its association with HIV and sexually transmitted infections in a U.S. navy population (Abstract no. TuPeC4861)
  |title=Prevalence of male circumcision and its association with HIV and sexually transmitted infections in a U.S. navy population (Abstract no. TuPeC4861)
  |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a458066.pdf
  |url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=e0f66eb069de9330e88295e6280a8a47a22b74ed
  |place=Bangkok, Thailand
  |place=Bangkok, Thailand
  |source=Presented at the 15th International AIDS Conference
  |source=Presented at the 15th International AIDS Conference
  |datefrom=2004-07-11
  |datefrom=2004-07-11
  |dateto=2004-07-16
  |dateto=2004-07-16
|format=PDF
  |accessdate=2019-11-15
  |accessdate=2019-11-15
}}</ref>
}}</ref>
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  |issue=3
  |issue=3
  |pages=375-7
  |pages=375-7
  |url=
  |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/disease/cancer/harish/
  |accessdate=
  |accessdate=2025-03-18
}}</ref>. Studies have shown that there is no significant difference in the risk of getting penile cancer between [[circumcised]] and [[intact]] men. To prevent a single case of penile cancer, it would statistically take 600 to 900 circumcisions<ref>{{REFdocument
}}</ref>. Studies have shown that there is no significant difference in the risk of getting penile cancer between [[circumcised]] and [[intact]] men. To prevent a single case of penile cancer, it would statistically take 600 to 900 circumcisions<ref>{{REFdocument
  |title=Position Paper on Neonatal Circumcision
  |title=Position Paper on Neonatal Circumcision
Line 640: Line 790:
  |accessdate=
  |accessdate=
}}</ref>. The influence of circumcision on the infection risk of the female partner with cervical cancer has been refuted several times as well. HPV vaccination is an effective measure against carcinoma of the cervix.
}}</ref>. The influence of circumcision on the infection risk of the female partner with cervical cancer has been refuted several times as well. HPV vaccination is an effective measure against carcinoma of the cervix.
 
====Conclusion====
In conclusion, circumcision does not provide any proven benefits in preventive medicine.
In conclusion, circumcision does not provide any proven benefits in preventive medicine.


== Non-medical indications for circumcision ==
== Pain ==
 
It is too dangerous to administer general anesthesia to newborn infants, so infant boys experience severe [[pain]] during circumcision.<ref name="garrett2024-01-09">{{REFweb
Apart from the [[medical indication]] of pathological phimosis, there also are other reasons for circumcision.
  |url=https://intactamerica.org/disadvantages-of-circumcision/
 
  |title=10 Disadvantages of Circumcision & Horrifying Facts
=== Aesthetic reasons ===
 
The visual appearance of the [[penis]] is changed radically after circumcision. In this case, personal taste is decisive whether a [[foreskinned]] or a [[circumcised]] [[penis]] is more appealing. Since a circumcision cannot be undone, it is essential to be fully informed about the risks, losses, and possible later complications before embarking on an aesthetically motivated circumcision, to decide whether the appearance will justify such bodily modification.
 
It should be noted that every circumcision operation leaves a life-long [[circumcision scar]] that encircles the shaft of the [[penis]]. In addition, there frequently is a color change at the circumcision scar which results in a two-tone appearance.
 
Since this modification and its possible late effects will be the lifelong burden of the person who undertakes an aesthetically motivated circumcision to suit his personal preferences, a valid decision to proceed can only be made by the person to be [[circumcised]] himself, once he has reached the necessary age and level of maturity to make that decision. This should normally be the case when adulthood is reached.
 
===Financial reasons===
 
In the [[United States]], payment for non-therapeutic circumcision is made by most [[third-party payment| third-party payers]] without question of necessity. Doctors frequently perform medically-unnecessary, non-therapeutic circumcision of infants and children simply to collect a fee for the surgical operation. The only beneficiary of such surgery is the [[Financial Incentive| bank account of the medical doctor]].<ref name="garrett2024-05-15">{{REFweb
  |url=https://intactamerica.org/economics-of-circumcision/
  |title=The Economics of Circumcision: A Full Breakdown of This Penis Business
  |last=Garrett
  |last=Garrett
  |first=Connor
  |first=Connor
Line 665: Line 802:
  |author-link=Connor Judson Garrett
  |author-link=Connor Judson Garrett
  |publisher=Intact America
  |publisher=Intact America
  |date=2023-12-21
  |date=2024-01-09
  |accessdate=2025-03-14
  |accessdate=3034-06-04
}}</ref>
}}</ref>
 
In the past, advocates of circumcision claimed that a newborn child's nerve system was not yet fully developed, and that as a result, the child felt no [[pain]] during the circumcision procedure. This antique view has now been completely disproved. [[Kanwaljeet J. Singh Anand| Anand]] & Hickey (1987) have shown that newborn children do in fact feel [[pain]], and more acutely than adults.<ref name="anand-hickey1987">{{REFjournal
=== Moral reasons ===
  |last=Anand
 
  |first=KJS
With the [[foreskin]], circumcision removes approximately 70% of the sensitive erogenous tissue of the [[penis]], lowering the potential for sexual stimulation accordingly. Due to the loss of around 50% of the entire [[penile skin]], the [[penis]] loses the reserve skin that provides cutaneous mobility in the erect [[penis]] and the [[gliding action]].
  |author-link=Kanwaljeet J. Singh Anand
 
  |last2=Hickey
In the past, this circumstance was used to make it harder for boys to masturbate and [[masturbation]] less fun, as [[masturbation]] was viewed as immoral and was assumed to cause a variety of mental diseases, caused by the thinking of immoral thoughts! More on that can be found in the chapter "[[Circumcision#Historical_background|Historical background]]". Today, it is known that [[masturbation]] has no negative health effects, but can contribute positively to the child's sexual development. Sexuality is no longer a taboo topic nowadays, while [[masturbation]] is considered to be a natural part of human sexuality and is no longer seen as immoral. Therefore, circumcision for moral reasons — which would only affect boys too young to give [[informed consent]] — is no longer justifiable nowadays.
  |first2=PR
 
=== Hygiene reasons ===
 
''Hygiene'' refers to health and only secondarily to cleanliness.
 
One should note that the human [[foreskin]] is endowed by nature with [[Foreskin#Immunological_functions| immunological functions]] that serve to protect the human body from disease.<ref name="fleiss-hodges-vanhowe1998"/> The [[glans penis]] receives blood through the frenular artery to help wih [[erection]].<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Persad
  |init=R
  |author-link=
  |last2=Sharma
  |init2=S
  |author2-link=
  |author2-link=
  |last3=McTavish
  |etal=no
  |init3=J
  |title=Pain and its effects in the human neonate and fetus
  |author3-link=
  |trans-title=
  |etal=yes
  |language=
  |title=Clinical presentation and pathophysiology of meatal stenosis following circumcision
  |journal=New Engl J Med
  |journal=Brit J Urol
  |location=
  |date=1995
  |date=1987-11-19
  |volume=75
  |volume=317
  |issue=1
  |issue=21
  |pages=91-3
  |pages=1321-9
  |url=https://www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1464-410X.1995.tb07242.x
  |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/pain/anand/
  |quote=
  |quote=However, in decisions about the use of these techniques, current knowledge suggests that humane considerations should apply as forcefully to the care of neonates and young, nonverbal infants as they do to children and adults in similar painful and stressful situations.
  |pubmedID=7850308
  |pubmedID=3317037
  |pubmedCID=
  |pubmedCID=
  |DOI=10.1111/j.1464-410x.1995.tb07242.x
  |DOI=10.1056/NEJM198711193172105
  |accessdate=2019-11-26
  |accessdate=2019-11-08
}}</ref> These facts are generally overlooked in arguments for alleged hygienic benefits of circumcision.
}}</ref> This has led American health associations to recommend doctors take measures to reduce the [[pain]] of circumcision in infants.


A common reason stated for circumcision is the assumption of hygienic benefits. This argument has to be viewed in the context of the environment the person in question grows up in. It is commonly known that bad hygienic circumstances, especially insufficient access to clean drinking water, pose a serious problem. The situation in disaster areas or refugee camps in the so-called third world keep reminding us of that.
The [https://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aap1999/|AAP Circumcision Policy Statement] (1999) states quite clearly that ''"There is considerable evidence that newborns who are [[circumcised]] without analgesia experience pain and physiologic stress"''. Furthermore, the pain is quite severe, and requires injections for proper pain management. Sucrose and Acetaminophen ''"cannot be recommended as the sole method of analgesia"''. Topical cream is no longer thought sufficient as ''"the analgesic effect is limited during the phases associated with extensive tissue trauma such as...tightening of the clamp"''.<ref>{{REFjournal
 
|last=
In western industrial nations, however, this problem does not exist, in view of the availability of clean water for daily personal hygiene. If the cleaning of the genitals is performed on a daily basis — and that may be assumed — no pathogens can accumulate under the [[foreskin]]. Cleaning of the [[Glans penis|glans]] and the [[preputial sac]] underneath the [[foreskin]] is easy — they are simply [[Preputial_sac#Washing| washed with warm water along with the rest of the body]], just like the areas between the toes.
|first=
 
|title=American Academy of Pediatrics: Circumcision Policy Statement; Task Force on Circumcision
In small boys, where the [[foreskin]] cannot be retracted yet, cleaning is not necessary, since the [[Synechia| membrane]] that fuses the [[foreskin]] to the [[Glans penis|glans]] prevents the accumulation of micro-organisms. The so-called "[[Ballooning of the foreskin| ballooning]]", where the [[foreskin]] inflates during urination, is normal and not a concern.
|journal=Pediatrics
 
|date=1999-03
The opening of the [[foreskin]] in small boys is often quite narrow and serves as a one-way valve, allowing the [[urine]] to flow out, but preventing entry of microbes, for example from a dirty diaper. As long as the child is able to pass water, everything works as nature intended.
|volume=103
 
|issue=3
But even in areas where there are poorer hygienic conditions and insufficient access to medical care, the benefits of easier cleaning of a [[circumcised]] [[penis]] are to be viewed with a critical eye. Although even longer periods without personal hygiene will not result in an accumulation of germs under the [[foreskin]], circumcision itself is not without risk of complications. If the operation is carried out without proper sterility, there is a high risk of an [[infection]] of the wound. This also applies to the treatment of common complications like post-operative [[bleeding]].
|pages=686-93
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aap1999/
|accessdate=2025-03-14
|note=Statement Reaffirmed Sept. 1, 2005
}}</ref>


The benefit of easier cleaning must be balanced against the risk of promoting serious infections — among others [[HIV]] — during the operation. In parts of Africa, several dozen of one tribe's boys die each year as a result of their circumcision.
The [[AAFP]] (2023) states quite simply in their [https://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aafp2002/| position paper], ''"Neonates who undergo circumcision should be provided analgesia, most commonly in the form of a nerve block.".''<ref>{{REFweb
|title=Neonatal Circumcision
|website=Official American Academy of Family Physicians Website
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aap1999/
|accessdate=2023-10
}}</ref> This is not a debatable fact, and yet, it is not widely accepted, even by some doctors. It might be hard for some doctors to accept, as they may have been taught that the infant does not feel [[pain]], and may have performed countless circumcisions with this idea. Usage of analgesia for infant circumcision is still by no means the rule.


== Circumcision methods ==
Penile injections of local anesthetic are now recommended by all of the major medical institutions if a circumcision is to be performed. In their [http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/no-index/about-ama/13585.shtml Report 10 of the Council on Scientific Affairs], the AMA states ''"When the decision is made to proceed with circumcision, local anesthesia should be provided for the procedure. [[Ring block]] or [[dorsal penile nerve block]] [injections] are most effective. [[EMLA]] cream has limited utility"''. Alarmingly, ''"Despite the clear evidence that newborn males generate brisk pain responses during circumcision, a recent survey of residency training programs found that 26% of programs that taught circumcision provided no instruction on the use of local anesthesia". The AMA reports that "Of physicians performing circumcision, 45% use anesthesia, 71% of pediatricians, 56% of family practitioners, and 25% of obstetricians"''.<ref>{{REFweb
|title=Report 10 of the Council on Scientific Affairs (I-99): Neonatal Circumcision
|website=American Medical Association Official Website
|url=http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/no-index/about-ama/13585.shtml
|accessdate=2011-05-04
}}</ref>


The [[Circumcision methods]] are discussed in a separate article.
The AAP's [http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/prenatal/decisions-to-make/pages/Where-We-Stand-Circumcision.aspx Heatlhy Children website] suggests ''"Your pediatrician (or your obstetrician) should discuss the forms of analgesia that are available"''.<ref>{{REFweb
== Pain ==
|title=Where We Stand: Circumcision
It is too dangerous to administer general anesthesia to newborn infants, so infant boys experience severe [[pain]] during circumcision.<ref name="garrett2024-01-09">{{REFweb
|publisher=[[AAP]]
  |url=https://intactamerica.org/disadvantages-of-circumcision/
|date=2011-03-23
|title=10 Disadvantages of Circumcision & Horrifying Facts
  |url=http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/prenatal/decisions-to-make/pages/Where-We-Stand-Circumcision.aspx
|last=Garrett
  |accessdate=2019-10-12
|first=Connor
}}</ref> Be that as it may, few forms of analgesia are recommended. There are basically two types of injections to choose from, and the website does not go into the difference between a 'dorsal nerve block' and a 'ring block' injection.<ref>The AAP is a master at promoting unnecessary circumcision for the profit of its members. Here it states, "<i>The American Academy of Pediatrics believes that circumcision has potential medical benefits and advantages, as well as risks.</i>" What they don't tell parents is that the "potential" means to exist in possibilty, but not in reality, so a "potential benefit" is not an actual benefit.</ref>
|init=
 
|author-link=Connor Judson Garrett
Given what is known from aforementioned official documents, the AAP website would be more informative and effective if it said ''"Make sure your doctor knows of the ineffectiveness of anything short of local anesthesia, and make sure your baby is given an injection. This is your responsibility, because your doctor may or may not be up to date on the latest understandings of infant sensitivity to [[pain]] during circumcision."'' The AAP may be holding back, however, perhaps because this would upset the doctor/parent power relationship, and may cause too much questioning of doctors in general. One may not expect to find this kind of advice on such a website, and yet, anything less than this is a dangerously weak statement.
|publisher=Intact America
 
|date=2024-01-09
To control [[pain]], some physicians that circumcise use Tylenol, sugar,<ref>{{REFweb
  |accessdate=3034-06-04
  |quote=To calm the baby during the procedure, a sugar filled gauze pacifier soaked with sweet juice is used, and soothing music is played in the room.
}}</ref>
  |url=http://www.pollockclinics.com/circumcision/circumcision-guide.html
In the past, advocates of circumcision claimed that a newborn child's nerve system was not yet fully developed, and that as a result, the child felt no [[pain]] during the circumcision procedure. This antique view has now been completely disproved. [[Kanwaljeet J. Singh Anand| Anand]] & Hickey (1987) have shown that newborn children do in fact feel [[pain]], and more acutely than adults.<ref name="anand-hickey1987">{{REFjournal
  |title=Parents' Guide to Circumcision
  |last=Anand
|last=
|first=KJS
  |first=
|author-link=Kanwaljeet J. Singh Anand
  |publisher=
|last2=Hickey
  |date=
|first2=PR
  |accessdate=2011-04-08
|author2-link=
}}</ref><ref>{{REFweb
|etal=no
|quote=During the circumcision, your son will receive sugar pacifiers to suck on which reduce his pain perceptions.
|title=Pain and its effects in the human neonate and fetus
|url=http://www.pollockclinics.com/circumcision/circumcision-before.html
|trans-title=
|title=Before the Circumcision
|language=
|journal=New Engl J Med
|location=
|date=1987-11-19
|volume=317
|issue=21
|pages=1321-9
  |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/pain/anand/
  |quote=However, in decisions about the use of these techniques, current knowledge suggests that humane considerations should apply as forcefully to the care of neonates and young, nonverbal infants as they do to children and adults in similar painful and stressful situations.
  |pubmedID=3317037
  |pubmedCID=
  |DOI=10.1056/NEJM198711193172105
  |accessdate=2019-11-08
}}</ref> This has led American health associations to recommend doctors take measures to reduce the [[pain]] of circumcision in infants.
 
The [https://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aap1999/|AAP Circumcision Policy Statement] (1999) states quite clearly that ''"There is considerable evidence that newborns who are [[circumcised]] without analgesia experience pain and physiologic stress"''. Furthermore, the pain is quite severe, and requires injections for proper pain management. Sucrose and Acetaminophen ''"cannot be recommended as the sole method of analgesia"''. Topical cream is no longer thought sufficient as ''"the analgesic effect is limited during the phases associated with extensive tissue trauma such as...tightening of the clamp"''.<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=
  |last=
  |first=
  |first=
  |title=American Academy of Pediatrics: Circumcision Policy Statement; Task Force on Circumcision
  |publisher=
|journal=Pediatrics
  |date=2011-04-08
  |date=1999-03
  |accessdate=2011-04-08
|volume=103
}}</ref> a topical cream,<ref>{{REFweb
|issue=3
  |quote=Then in our office, he will have topical anesthetic applied to his penis.
|pages=686-93
  |url=http://www.pollockclinics.com/circumcision/circumcision-before.html
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aap1999/
  |title=Before the Circumcision
  |accessdate=2025-03-14
  |last=
|note=Statement Reaffirmed Sept. 1, 2005
  |first=
}}</ref>
  |publisher=
 
  |date=2011-04-08
The [[AAFP]] (2023) states quite simply in their [https://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aafp2002/| position paper], ''"Neonates who undergo circumcision should be provided analgesia, most commonly in the form of a nerve block.".''<ref>{{REFweb
  |accessdate=2011-04-08
  |title=Neonatal Circumcision
}}</ref> and/or a local anaesthetic injection called a dorsal penile ring block.<ref>{{REFweb
|website=Official American Academy of Family Physicians Website
  |quote=We use extensive pain control methods including Tylenol, a sugar solution (to reduce pain perceptions), a topical freezing cream, and a local anesthetic injection.
  |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aap1999/
  |url=http://www.pollockclinics.com/circumcision/circumcision-guide.html
|accessdate=2023-10
  |title=Parents' Guide to Circumcision
}}</ref> This is not a debatable fact, and yet, it is not widely accepted, even by some doctors. It might be hard for some doctors to accept, as they may have been taught that the infant does not feel [[pain]], and may have performed countless circumcisions with this idea. Usage of analgesia for infant circumcision is still by no means the rule.
  |last=
 
  |first=
Penile injections of local anesthetic are now recommended by all of the major medical institutions if a circumcision is to be performed. In their [http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/no-index/about-ama/13585.shtml Report 10 of the Council on Scientific Affairs], the AMA states ''"When the decision is made to proceed with circumcision, local anesthesia should be provided for the procedure. [[Ring block]] or [[dorsal penile nerve block]] [injections] are most effective. [[EMLA]] cream has limited utility"''. Alarmingly, ''"Despite the clear evidence that newborn males generate brisk pain responses during circumcision, a recent survey of residency training programs found that 26% of programs that taught circumcision provided no instruction on the use of local anesthesia". The AMA reports that "Of physicians performing circumcision, 45% use anesthesia, 71% of pediatricians, 56% of family practitioners, and 25% of obstetricians"''.<ref>{{REFweb
  |publisher=
  |title=Report 10 of the Council on Scientific Affairs (I-99): Neonatal Circumcision
  |website=American Medical Association Official Website
|url=http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/no-index/about-ama/13585.shtml
|accessdate=2011-05-04
}}</ref>
 
The AAP's [http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/prenatal/decisions-to-make/pages/Where-We-Stand-Circumcision.aspx Heatlhy Children website] suggests ''"Your pediatrician (or your obstetrician) should discuss the forms of analgesia that are available"''.<ref>{{REFweb
  |title=Where We Stand: Circumcision
  |publisher=[[AAP]]
  |date=2011-03-23
|url=http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/prenatal/decisions-to-make/pages/Where-We-Stand-Circumcision.aspx
  |accessdate=2019-10-12
}}</ref> Be that as it may, few forms of analgesia are recommended. There are basically two types of injections to choose from, and the website does not go into the difference between a 'dorsal nerve block' and a 'ring block' injection.<ref>The AAP is a master at promoting unnecessary circumcision for the  profit of its members. Here it states, "<i>The American Academy of Pediatrics believes that circumcision has potential medical benefits and advantages, as well as risks.</i>" What they don't tell parents is that the "potential" means to exist in possibilty, but not in reality, so a "potential benefit" is not an actual benefit.</ref>
 
Given what is known from aforementioned official documents, the AAP website would be more informative and effective if it said ''"Make sure your doctor knows of the ineffectiveness of anything short of local anesthesia, and make sure your baby is given an injection. This is your responsibility, because your doctor may or may not be up to date on the latest understandings of infant sensitivity to [[pain]] during circumcision."'' The AAP may be holding back, however, perhaps because this would upset the doctor/parent power relationship, and may cause too much questioning of doctors in general. One may not expect to find this kind of advice on such a website, and yet, anything less than this is a dangerously weak statement.
 
To control [[pain]], some physicians that circumcise use Tylenol, sugar,<ref>{{REFweb
  |quote=To calm the baby during the procedure, a sugar filled gauze pacifier soaked with sweet juice is used, and soothing music is played in the room.
  |url=http://www.pollockclinics.com/circumcision/circumcision-guide.html
  |title=Parents' Guide to Circumcision
  |last=
  |first=
  |publisher=
  |date=
  |date=
  |accessdate=2011-04-08
  |accessdate=2011-04-08
}}</ref><ref>{{REFweb
}}</ref> Topical anaesthetic only serves to numb the area to lessen the pain of the injection, but studies have shown that a [[dorsal penile nerve block]] is only partially effective in stopping the [[Pain| pain of circumcision]].<ref name="Journal of Perinatology April/May 2002">{{REFjournal
|quote=During the circumcision, your son will receive sugar pacifiers to suck on which reduce his pain perceptions.
  |last=Taeusch
|url=http://www.pollockclinics.com/circumcision/circumcision-before.html
  |first=H. William
|title=Before the Circumcision
  |init=HW
|last=
|first=
|publisher=
|date=2011-04-08
|accessdate=2011-04-08
}}</ref> a topical cream,<ref>{{REFweb
|quote=Then in our office, he will have topical anesthetic applied to his penis.
|url=http://www.pollockclinics.com/circumcision/circumcision-before.html
|title=Before the Circumcision
|last=
|first=
|publisher=
|date=2011-04-08
|accessdate=2011-04-08
}}</ref> and/or a local anaesthetic injection called a dorsal penile ring block.<ref>{{REFweb
|quote=We use extensive pain control methods including Tylenol, a sugar solution (to reduce pain perceptions), a topical freezing cream, and a local anesthetic injection.
|url=http://www.pollockclinics.com/circumcision/circumcision-guide.html
|title=Parents' Guide to Circumcision
|last=
|first=
|publisher=
|date=
|accessdate=2011-04-08
}}</ref> Topical anaesthetic only serves to numb the area to lessen the pain of the injection, but studies have shown that a [[dorsal penile nerve block]] is only partially effective in stopping the [[Pain| pain of circumcision]].<ref name="Journal of Perinatology April/May 2002">{{REFjournal
  |last=Taeusch
  |first=H. William
  |init=HW
  |last2=Martinez
  |last2=Martinez
  |first2=Alma M.
  |first2=Alma M.
Line 881: Line 955:
  |date=1986-08
  |date=1986-08
  |accessdate=2011-04-08
  |accessdate=2011-04-08
}}</ref> During circumcision, somp physicians give children sugar pacifiers to "reduce the perception of pain",<ref>{{REFweb
}}</ref> During circumcision, somp physicians give children sugar pacifiers to "reduce the perception of pain", but in at least one study, data shows that giving sugar to a child doesn't help to reduce the perception of pain in the child.<ref name="Lancet, The 2010-10-09">{{REFjournal
|quote=During the circumcision, your son will receive sugar pacifiers to suck on which reduce his pain perceptions.
  |last=Slater
|url=http://www.pollockclinics.com/circumcision/circumcision-before.html
|title=Before the Circumcision
|last=
|first=
|publisher=
|date=2011-04-08
|accessdate=2011-04-08
}}</ref> but in at least one study, data shows that giving sugar to a child doesn't help to reduce the perception of pain in the child.<ref name="Lancet, The 2010-10-09">{{REFjournal
  |last=Slater
  |first=Rebeccah
  |first=Rebeccah
  |init=R
  |init=R
Line 930: Line 995:
  |date=2010-10-09
  |date=2010-10-09
  |accessdate=2011-04-08
  |accessdate=2011-04-08
}}</ref> Post-operative pain and the pain the child must endure during recovery is hardly, if ever, addressed by professionals.<ref>The use of sweets reduces crying because the infant boy cannot cry and suck at the same time. It does not reduce the pain experienced.</ref>
}}</ref> Post-operative pain and the pain the child must endure during recovery is hardly, if ever, addressed by professionals.<ref>The use of sweets reduces crying because the infant boy cannot cry and suck at the same time. It does not reduce the [[pain]] experienced.</ref> [[Circumcised]] boys will be very uncomfortable and fussy when compared with [[intact]] boys and girls.<ref>{{REFweb
|url=https://thewholetruth.data.blog/2025/06/25/fussy-boys-calm-girls-how-circumcision-distorts-our-view-of-gender-behavior/
|title=Fussy Boys & Calm Girls: How Circumcision Distorts Our View of Gender Behavior
|last=Barrett
|first=
|init=JL
|author-link=
|publisher=The Whole Truth
|date=2025-06-25
|accessdate=2025-06-26
}}</ref>


It has been shown that an infant's response to [[pain]] can be altered for years as a consequence of circumcision.<ref>{{TaddioA etal 1995}}</ref><ref>{{TaddioA KatzJ IlersichAL KorenG 1997}}</ref>
It has been shown that an infant's response to [[pain]] can be altered for years as a consequence of circumcision.<ref>{{TaddioA etal 1995}}</ref><ref>{{TaddioA KatzJ IlersichAL KorenG 1997}}</ref>
Line 993: Line 1,068:
  |DOI=10.1038/s41443-022-00619-8
  |DOI=10.1038/s41443-022-00619-8
  |accessdate=2023-01-08
  |accessdate=2023-01-08
}}</ref>
===Circumcision devices===
Infant circumcisions are almost always carried out by the use of a circumcision device or clamp. The most common devices are the [[Gomco| Gomco clamp]], the [[Mogen| Mogen clamp]], and the [[Plastibell| Plastibell device]], however none of them are really safe and serious injury or even [[death]] can occur with any of them.<ref name="milos2022s03-14">{{REFweb
|url=https://intactamerica.org/ask-marilyn-circumcision-no-surgical-device-is-safe/
|title=Ask Marilyn – Circumcision: No Surgical Device Is Safe
|last=Milos
|first=
|init=MF
|author-link=Marilyn Fayre Milos
|publisher=Intact America
|date=2022-03-14
|accessdate=2024-10-24
}}</ref>
}}</ref>
=== Physical effects ===
=== Physical effects ===
Line 1,029: Line 1,092:
}}</ref>
}}</ref>


* Orgasm problems: In the wake of reduced sexual sensitivity, due to the loss of sensory tissue and gradual [[keratinization]] of the surface of the [[Glans penis|glans]], orgasm problems may develop with increasing age. In this case, the sexual arousal created by intercourse or [[masturbation]] is not enough to achieve orgasm. A preliminary stage of this late effect is the prolonged time [[circumcised]]] men need to reach an orgasm. This is often fielded as the "cut men have more endurance" argument for circumcision.
* Orgasm problems: In the wake of reduced sexual sensitivity, due to the loss of erogenous sensory tissue and gradual [[keratinization]] of the surface of the [[Glans penis|glans]], orgasm problems may develop with increasing age. In this case, the sexual arousal created by intercourse or [[masturbation]] is not enough to achieve orgasm. A preliminary stage of this late effect is the prolonged time [[circumcised]]] men need to reach an orgasm. This is often fielded as the "cut men have more endurance" argument for circumcision.
* Vaginal dryness: Due to the loss of the natural [[gliding action]], which comes from the mobility of the [[foreskin]] and [[shaft skin]], a much increased friction between [[penis]] and [[vagina]] occurs during intercourse. This can make intercourse painful for both partners and lead to abrasions<ref>{{FrischM LindholmM GroenbaekM 2011}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
* Vaginal dryness: Due to the loss of the natural [[gliding action]], which comes from the mobility of the [[foreskin]] and [[shaft skin]], a much increased friction between [[penis]] and [[vagina]] occurs during intercourse. This can make intercourse painful for both partners and lead to abrasions<ref>{{FrischM LindholmM GroenbaekM 2011}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Cortés-González
  |last=Cortés-González
Line 1,046: Line 1,109:
  |pubmedID=18807735
  |pubmedID=18807735
  |accessdate=
  |accessdate=
}}</ref> The prolonged time it takes [[circumcised]] men to reach orgasm, as well as the often longer and more vigorous thrusting movements - compared to [[intact]] men - play a part in this.<ref name="ColdCJ TaylorJR 1999">{{ColdCJ TaylorJR 1999}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
}}</ref> The prolonged time it takes [[circumcised]] men to reach orgasm, as well as the often longer and more vigorous thrusting movements — compared to [[intact]] men — play a part in this.<ref name="ColdCJ TaylorJR 1999">{{ColdCJ TaylorJR 1999}}</ref><ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=Fink
  |last=Fink
  |init=KS
  |init=KS
Line 1,146: Line 1,209:
}}</ref>
}}</ref>
}}
}}
===Health effects===
The [[foreskin]] provides both [[Immunological and protective function of the foreskin| physical protection and protection from infection]], so [[foreskinned]] boys and men tend to have better health than [[circumcised]] boys and men.<ref name=fendereski2024" /> <ref name="bollinger2025-08-27" /> <ref name="vanhowe2006" />


=== Sexual effects ===
=== Sexual effects ===
Line 1,233: Line 1,298:


=== Psychological effects ===
=== Psychological effects ===
[[Psychological_issues_of_male_circumcision#Circumcision_trauma_in_adults| Psychological late effects]] are also possible after a circumcision, especially if the operation was carried out in childhood.<ref name="garrett2024-01-09" /> On this occasion a variety of [[trauma]] may occur, which depend, among others, on age and circumstances of the circumcision. For example, whether the circumcision took place with or without sufficient anaesthesia, if the individual has been informed about the operation beforehand, if he was [[circumcised]] against his will or without his consent, and also, in the case of infant circumcision, if he was told about it during childhood or had to find it out coincidentally on his own.
[[Psychological_issues_of_male_circumcision#Circumcision_trauma_in_adults| Psychological late effects]] are also likely after a circumcision, especially if the operation was carried out in childhood.<ref name="garrett2024-01-09" /> On this occasion a variety of [[trauma]] may occur, which depend, among others, on age and circumstances of the circumcision. For example, whether the circumcision took place with or without sufficient anaesthesia, if the individual has been informed about the operation beforehand, if he was [[circumcised]] against his will or without his consent, and also, in the case of infant circumcision, if he was told about it during childhood or had to find it out coincidentally on his own.


The psychological late effects of circumcision are not yet fully researched, and many studies took place on rather a small scale. This situation needs to be rectified, because the available studies, as well as the histories of negatively affected men, suggest that these late effects may have more impact than previously assumed.
The psychological late effects of circumcision are not yet fully researched, and many studies took place on rather a small scale. This situation needs to be rectified, because the available studies, as well as the histories of negatively affected men, suggest that these late effects may have more impact than previously assumed.
Line 1,315: Line 1,380:
  |volume=38
  |volume=38
  |pages=321-31
  |pages=321-31
|pubmedID=5322308
|DOI=10.1111/j.2044-8341.1965.tb01314.x
  |accessdate=2019-10-12
  |accessdate=2019-10-12
}}</ref>
}}</ref>
Line 1,329: Line 1,396:
  |accessdate=2019-10-12
  |accessdate=2019-10-12
}}</ref>
}}</ref>
* Fear of doctors, clinics and also closed rooms.<ref name="Levy1945"/>
* Fear of doctors, clinics, and also closed rooms.<ref name="Levy1945"/>
* Relapse into the state of bed-wetting, even if the child was already dry before.<ref name="Levy1945"/>
* Relapse into the state of bed-wetting, even if the child was already dry before.<ref name="Levy1945"/>
* [[Circumcised]] males who become fathers frequently manifest [[adamant father syndrome]].
* [[Circumcised]] males who become fathers frequently manifest [[adamant father syndrome]].
Line 1,637: Line 1,704:
  |accessdate=2019-10-12
  |accessdate=2019-10-12
  |note=ID 10.1007/978-0-585-39937-9_19
  |note=ID 10.1007/978-0-585-39937-9_19
}}</ref> Parental consent is required.<ref>See, e.g., Shephard and Shephard, ''The Complete Guide'', p. 125.</ref> A statement published by the [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] in 1999 claimed that "parents should determine what is in the best interest of the child... It is legitimate for parents to take into account cultural, religious, and ethnic traditions, in additions to the medical factors, when making a decision."<ref>Lannon and Bailey, "Circumcision Policy Statement," p. 691.</ref> however surrogate consent for non-therapeutic circumcision is now viewed as unethical.
}}</ref> Parental consent is required.<ref>See, e.g., Shephard and Shephard, ''The Complete Guide'', p. 125.</ref> A statement published by the [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] in 1999 claimed that "parents should determine what is in the best interest of the child... It is legitimate for parents to take into account cultural, religious, and ethnic traditions, in additions to the medical factors, when making a decision."<ref>Lannon and Bailey, "Circumcision Policy Statement," p. 691.</ref> however surrogate consent for non-therapeutic circumcision is now viewed as unethical.<ref name-"myers2020">{{REFjournal
 
  |last=Myers
In the [[United Kingdom]], where non-therapeutic circumcision has now become far less prevalent than in the [[United States]], the written consent of both parents is required, if a physician is to perform a non-therapeutic circumcision of a child.<ref>{{REFjournal
  |last=
  |first=
  |first=
  |title=Re J (child's religious upbringing and circumcision)
|init=A
  |journal=Family Court Reports
|author-link=Alex Myers
  |date=2000
|last2=Earp
  |volume=1
|first2=
  |issue=
|init2=BD
  |pages=307-14
|author2-link=Brian D. Earp
|etal=no
|title=What is the best age to circumcise? A medical and ethical analysis
|trans-title=
|language=
|journal=Bioethics
|location=
|date=2020
|volume=34
|issue=7
|pages=645-63
|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Brian-Earp-2/publication/337720859_What_Is_the_Best_Age_to_Circumcise_A_Medical_and_Ethical_Analysis/links/5f815f61a6fdccfd7b555395/What-Is-the-Best-Age-to-Circumcise-A-Medical-and-Ethical-Analysis.pdf
|archived=
|quote=Based on a careful consideration of the relevant evidence, arguments and counterarguments, we conclude that medically unnecessary penile circumcision-like other medically unnecessary genital procedures, such as 'cosmetic' labiaplasty-should not be performed on individuals who are too young (or otherwise unable) to provide meaningful consent to the procedure.
|pubmedID=32068898
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=
|doi=10.1111/bioe.12714
|format=PDF
|accessdate=2026-02-03
}}</ref>
 
In the [[United Kingdom]], where non-therapeutic circumcision has now become far less prevalent than in the [[United States]], the written consent of both parents is required, if a physician is to perform a non-therapeutic circumcision of a child.<ref>{{REFjournal
|last=
|first=
  |title=Re J (child's religious upbringing and circumcision)
  |journal=Family Court Reports
  |date=2000
  |volume=1
  |issue=
  |pages=307-14
  |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/legal/Re_J/2000.html
  |url=https://www.cirp.org/library/legal/Re_J/2000.html
  |accessdate=2019-10-12
  |accessdate=2019-10-12
Line 1,653: Line 1,748:


In recent years, legal writers in several English-speaking countries have been questioning the practice of acceding to parental wishes.<ref>See, e.g., [[Margaret A. Somerville|Somerville]], "Therapeutic and Non-Therapeutic Medical Procedures"; Poulter, ''English Criminal Law''; [[Abbie Chessler|Chessler]], "Justifying the Unjustifiable"; Smith, "Male Circumcision."</ref> For example, critics have pointed out that, in the [[United States]], more than 1.3% of male neonatal deaths are attributable to the complications of non-therapeutic circumcision surgery.<ref name="Bollinger 2010"/>
In recent years, legal writers in several English-speaking countries have been questioning the practice of acceding to parental wishes.<ref>See, e.g., [[Margaret A. Somerville|Somerville]], "Therapeutic and Non-Therapeutic Medical Procedures"; Poulter, ''English Criminal Law''; [[Abbie Chessler|Chessler]], "Justifying the Unjustifiable"; Smith, "Male Circumcision."</ref> For example, critics have pointed out that, in the [[United States]], more than 1.3% of male neonatal deaths are attributable to the complications of non-therapeutic circumcision surgery.<ref name="Bollinger 2010"/>
==Recommendations of medical authorities==
==Recommendations of medical authorities==
* [[George Hill| Hill]] (2007) said:
* [[George Hill| Hill]] (2007) said:
<blockquote>
<blockquote>
Male circumcision is harmful because it excises healthy tissue and permanently impairs beneficial physiological functions. Male circumcision also causes psychological problems that tend to perpetuate the cycle of abuse. Male circumcision is a costly diversion of medical resources away from beneficial services. Male circumcision violates legal rights, [[human rights]], and ethical standards. Finally, we must remember that males are the more vulnerable and sensitive of the two genders and, therefore, deserve the greater degree of protection from traumatic, invasive, injurious,and unnecessary surgery. For all of these reasons the non-therapeutic circumcision of boys should not be performed and the [[genital integrity]] of all children should be respected and protected.<ref name="hill2007">{{REFjournal
Male circumcision is harmful because it excises healthy tissue and permanently destroys beneficial, protective, immunonological, sexual, and sensory physiological functions. Male circumcision also causes psychological problems that tend to perpetuate the cycle of abuse. Male circumcision is a costly diversion of medical resources away from beneficial services. Male circumcision violates legal rights, [[human rights]], and ethical standards. Finally, we must remember that males are the more vulnerable and sensitive of the two genders and, therefore, deserve the greater degree of protection from traumatic, invasive, injurious,and unnecessary surgery. For all of these reasons the non-therapeutic circumcision of boys should not be performed and the [[genital integrity]] of all children should be respected and protected.<ref name="hill2007">{{REFjournal
  |last=Hill
  |last=Hill
  |first=George
  |first=George
Line 1,667: Line 1,763:
  |issue=3
  |issue=3
  |pages=318-23
  |pages=318-23
  |url=https://www.academia.edu/8367383/The_Case_Against_Circumcision
  |url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=04ace5046cc27f01b8fbe4aa359c059778983912
  |quote=
  |quote=
  |pubmedID=
  |pubmedID=
  |pubmedCID=
  |pubmedCID=
  |DOI=
  |DOI=
  |accessdate=2021-05-30
|format=PDF
  |accessdate=2025-04-22
}}</ref>
}}</ref>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
Line 1,824: Line 1,921:
  |accessdate=2021-11-09
  |accessdate=2021-11-09
}}</ref></blockquote>
}}</ref></blockquote>
==British family court opinion==
==British family court opinion==
The issue of non-therapeutic circumcision of male children came before the court in the case of ''[[Re B and G (children) (No 2) EWFC 3]] (2015)'' . In that case, Judge Sir James Munby ruled that circumcision of male children caused ''significant harm''.  
The issue of non-therapeutic circumcision of male children came before the court in the case of ''[[Re B and G (children) (No 2) EWFC 3]] (2015)'' . In that case, Judge Sir James Munby ruled that circumcision of male children caused ''significant harm''.  
Line 1,931: Line 2,029:
}}</ref>  
}}</ref>  
== Tipping point ==
== Tipping point ==
[[Intact America]] (2024) argues that public opinion regarding non-therapeutic [[circumcision]] of children is approaching or at a "tipping point" at which [[intact]] genitals would be preferred over the [[circumcised]] variety.<ref>{{REFweb
[[Intact America]] (2024) points out the need for reform in the American media false portrayal of infant circumcision as a benign procedure.<ref>{{REFweb
|url=https://intactamerica.org/public-opinion-on-circumcision/
  |url=https://intactamerica.org/truth-about-circumcision-media/
|title=Public Opinion on Circumcision: Can Intactivists Hit A Tipping Point?
  |title=The Dark Side of Circumcision: Why the Media Needs to Speak Up
|last=Anonymous
|first=
|init=
|publisher=Intact America
|date=2024-03-23
|accessdate=2024-04-09
}}</ref>
 
[[Intact America]] (2024) points out the need for reform in the American media false portrayal of infant circumcision as a benign procedure.<ref>{{REFweb
  |url=https://intactamerica.org/truth-about-circumcision-media/
  |title=The Dark Side of Circumcision: Why the Media Needs to Speak Up
  |last=Alissa
  |last=Alissa
  |first=Kristel
  |first=Kristel
Line 1,954: Line 2,041:
}}</ref>
}}</ref>


==Financial and other costs==
Jacobsen et al. (2021) used data from 2003 through 2016 from the Kid's Inpatient Database of the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality to compare [[intact]] with [[circumcised]] boys in the first 28 days of life. The authors reported a gradual declining trend in the incidence of neonatal non-therapeutic [[circumcision]] throughout the study period. The overall incidence of circumcision decreased from 57.4 percent in 2003 to 52.1 percent in 2016 over the 13-year study period or 5.3 percentage points for an average decrease of 0.4 percentage point per year. The authors noted "neonatal circumcision rates decreased significantly over time."<ref name="jacobson2021">{{REFjournal
Infant male circumcision is an extra-cost option after birth. There are no medical indications for it. It is a medically-unnecessary, non-therapeutic, non-beneficial irreversible amputation of a functional body part, so medical insurance may or may not pay for it. There are several financial costs associated with infant circumcision. There is a hospital fee, a set-up fee, pharmaceutical fees, a separate fee for the medical doctor who performs the amputation, and various possible additional costs for the treatment of complications.<ref name="garrett2023-12-21">{{REFweb
  |last=Jacobson
|url=https://intactamerica.org/economics-of-circumcision/
  |first=Deborah L.
|title=The Economics of Circumcision: A Full Breakdown of This Penis Business
  |last=Garrett
  |first=Connor
  |init=
  |init=
  |author-link=Connor Judson Garrett
  |author-link=
  |publisher=Intact America
  |last2=Balmert
  |date=2023-12-21
|first2=Lauren C.
  |accessdate=2024-05-15
|init2=
|author2-link=
|last3=Holl
|first3=Jane L.
|init3=
|author3-link=
|last4=Rosoklija
|first4=Ilina
|init4=
|author4-link=
|last5=Davis
|first5=Matthew M.
|init5=
|author5-link=
|last6=Johnson
|first6Emilie K.
|init6=
|author6-link=
|etal=no
|title=Nationwide Circumcision Trends: 2003 to 2016
|trans-title=
|language=
|journal=J Urol
|location=
  |date=2021-01
|volume=205
|issue=1
|pages=257-63
|url=https://www.auajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1097/JU.0000000000001316
|pubmedID=32716676
|pubmedCID=
|DOI=10.1097/JU.0000000000001316
  |accessdate=2025-10-02
}}</ref>
}}</ref>


Bollinger estimated the total cost of [[circumcision]] in 2012 for Americans, when all costs are included, to be $3.6 billion annually.<ref>{{REFweb
Yang et al. (2025) report a "significant" decline in the incidence of circumcision over a ten-year period and that only a minority of American boys are being [[circumcised]] in the newborn period since 2022. The authors reported a decline of 1/2 of one percent per year. <ref name="yang2025" /> Although the incidence of [[circumcision of the newborn]] has been gradually declining for decades, this is the first study to report an overall incidence of less than fifty percent. Based on this new information, we can now report that [[intactness]] is now the NORM among the newborn boys of America. The decline in circumcision popularity is expected to continue.  
  |url=https://www.academia.edu/6442587/High_Cost_of_Circumcision_3.6_Billion_Annually
 
  |title=High Cost of Circumcision: $3.6 Billion Annually
We note that [[Australia]] reported a significant improvement in child health when the incidence of circumcision declined in that nation.<ref>{{REFweb
  |last=Bollinger
  |url=https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/children-youth/australias-children-in-brief/summary
  |first=Dan
  |title=Australia’s children: in brief
  |author-link=Dan Bollinger
  |last=Anonymous
  |publisher=Academia
  |first=
  |website=https://www.academia.edu
|init=
  |date=2012
  |author-link=
  |accessdate=2024-06-21
  |publisher=Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
|format=
  |pubmedID=
|quote=As the saying goes, follow the money. Now you know why neither the [[American Academy of Pediatrics]], American Medical Association, [[American Academy of Family Physicians]], or the [[American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists]] haven’t condemned this unnecessary surgery, and why their physician members are quick to recommend the procedure to expectant parents.
ISBN=978-1-76054-659-5
}}</ref> He has since updated his estimate of total annual cost in 2020 to be $5,685,000,000 or nearly six billion dollars per year.<ref>{{REFbook
|DOI=10.25816/5e152818d082c
  |date=2019-12-17
  |accessdate=2025-09-17
}}</ref>
 
==Video==
===This should be a crime.===
<youtube>v=ob4OADNIidc</youtube>
{{SEEALSO}}
* [[Foreskin comment]]
* [[Fusions and adhesions]]
* [[Neurotomy]]
{{LINKS}}
* {{REFweb
|url=https://www.prweb.com/releases/new-survey-parents-lack-basic-understanding-about-circumcision-dangers-skin-in-the-game-campaign-launches-to-raise-awareness-about-this-unnecessary-medical-practice-301987509.html
|title=New Survey: Parents Lack Basic Understanding About Circumcision Dangers; 'Skin in the Game' Campaign Launches to Raise Awareness About This Unnecessary Medical Practice
  |last=Anonymous
  |last=Anonymous
  |first=
  |first=
  |init=
  |init=
  |year=2024
  |author-link=
|title=Skin in the Game
|url=
|scope=
|location=
|page=28
  |publisher=Intact America
  |publisher=Intact America
  |ISBN=
  |date=2023-11-14
|quote=
  |accessdate=2025-12-07
  |accessdate=2024-08-28
}}
}}</ref>
* {{REFweb
 
|url=https://www.reddit.com/r/NewBorn/comments/u9c5og/questions_for_baby_boi_do_you_circumcised_your/
There also are additional non-financial costs, which include sexual and sensory losses that adversely impact on the sexual experience in adult life, and psychological losses such as [[PTSD]], and grieving of losses.
|title=Questions for baby boi do you circumcised your baby or leave it?
 
|last=Anonymous
==The advantages and benefits of avoiding circumcision==
|publisher=REDDIT
* Your newborn son will not be cruelly strapped to a [[circumstraint]].
|date=2021
* Your newborn son will not suffer the extreme [[pain]] of circumcision.
|accessdate=2025-11-22
* Your newborn son will not suffer the physical and psychic [[trauma]]* of circumcision.
}}
* Your newborn son will not be exposed to the surgical risks of [[bleeding]], [[infection]], and [[complication]] of non-therapeutic circumcision.
* {{REFweb
* Your newborn son will not have an open wound requiring care and subject to [[infection]] on his [[penis]].
|url=https://www.reddit.com/r/self/comments/ljwpfe/why_i_hate_being_circumcised/
* Your newborn son will not suffer the weeks of [[Pain#Post-surgical_pain post-surgical pain]].
|title=Why I hate being circumcised
* Your newborn son will not have his [[Pain#Injury_to_the_infant_nervous_system| nervous system permanently injured]] by the extreme pain of circumcision.
  |last=Anonymous
* Your newborn son's [[foreskinned]] [[penis]] will be [[Immunological and protective function of the foreskin| protected]] and need no special care at home.
* Your newborn son will be more able to start [[breastfeeding]] due to the lack of [[trauma]], and enjoy the increased [[Immunological protection of breastfeeding| immunological protection]].
* Your newborn son may leave hospital earlier due to avoidance of an expensive, harmful, unnecessary, non-therapeutic circumcision.<ref name="mansfield1995">{{REFjournal
  |last=Mansfield
  |first=
  |first=
  |init=CJ
  |init=
  |author-link=
  |author-link=
  |last2=Hueston
  |publisher=REDDIT
|first2=
  |date=2020
|init2=WJ
  |accessdate=2025-11-01
|author2-link=
}}
|last3=Rudy
* {{REFweb
|first3=
  |url=https://www.reddit.com/r/foreskin_restoration/comments/1pjzoqz/circumcision_will_end_this_century/
|init3=M
  |title=Circumcision will end this century
|author3-link=
  |last=Anonymous
|etal=no
  |publisher=REDDIT
|title=Neonatal circumcision: associated factors and length of hospital stay
  |date=2025-12-11
|trans-title=
  |accessdate=2025-12-11
|language=
}}
|journal=J Fam Pract
* {{REFweb
|location=
  |url=https://www.reddit.com/r/intactinfo/comments/1qe1kkl/the_neurological_cost_of_circumcision_a_breakdown/
  |date=1995-10
  |title=The Neurological Cost of Circumcision, A Breakdown of What's Removed
|volume=41
  |last=Anonymous
|issue=4
  |first=
|pages=370-6
  |init=
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/procedure/mansfield/
  |author-link=
|archived=
  |publisher=REDDIT
|quote=
  |date=2026-01-15
|pubmedID=7561711
  |accessdate=2026-01-16
|pubmedCID=
}}
  |accessdate=2025-03-14
* {{REFweb
}}</ref>
  |url=https://www.reddit.com/r/uncircumcised_talk/comments/1rawx5e/my_wife_and_i_agree_to_leave_our_son_intact/
* Your newborn son's [[foreskinned]] penis will fit the style of the twenty-first century.
  |title=My wife and I agree - to leave our son intact  
* Your newborn son will not experience in his adult life the major loss of [[Erogenous sensation of the foreskin| erogenous sensation]] that occurs with amputation of the [[foreskin]].
  |last=Anonymous
* Your newborn son will not experience in his adult life the [[Psychological issues of male circumcision| psychological issues]] that frequently occur in [[circumcised]] men.
  |publisher=REDDIT
* Your newborn son will not need to undertake [[foreskin restoration]] in his adult life.
  |date=2026-02-21
 
  |accessdate=2026-02-21
==Video==
}}
===Circumcision: Whose decision should it be?===
{{REF}}
<youtube>v=fbkUo_mw3oA</youtube>
===Is circumcision healthy?===
The video ''Is Circumcision Healthy'' is recommended for parental viewing.
<br><br>
  <youtube>D_3LQjZgdbQ</youtube>
===Circumcision - Not Just A Little Snip===
A British view.
<youtube>v=xjqxeTg7JUc</youtube>
===Dr. Christopher Guest discusses circumcision===
A Canadian view
<br>
<youtube>v=TQIp9f4krVQ</youtube>
===New Orleans mother speaks on circumcision===
<youtube>v=Q0owxwNppB8</youtube>
=== Dr. Eric discusses circumcision ===
<br>
<youtube>v=iZ64pqWZRW8</youtube>
Dr. Eric understates the numerous functions of the foreskin.
===Plastibel circumcision===
 
{{UNI|Stanford University|SU}} has published a video of an actual non-therapeutic plastibell circumcision. The infant has received two injections of local anesthesia to deaden the dorsal nerves. The ventral nerves were not deadened so the infant still feels pain. One can his cries on the soundtrack.
* [https://med.stanford.edu/newborns/professional-education/circumcision/plastibell-technique.html Plastibell Technique]
 
===Gomco clamp circumcision===
 
'''Not for the squeamish:'''
 
This is a video of an actual circumcision with a Gomco clamp. The infant boy received two dorsal penile nerve block (DPNB) analgesic injections but they did not seem to work. The [[Circumcision industry]] does not like parents to see an actual circumcision.
 
* [https://www.reddit.com/r/Intactivism/comments/qbpzqr/trained_medical_professionals_restrain_infant_to/ Circumcision video]
===CIRCUMCISION: The Truth!! (I ♥ Foreskin)===
<youtube>v=W4Cjaaj1V50</youtube>
{{SEEALSO}}
* [[Adolescent and adult circumcision]]
* [[Bodily harm]]
* [[Breastfeeding]]
* [[Case Histories]]
* [[Circumcision bullet-points for parents]]
* [[Circumcision maps]]
* [[Circumcision methods]]
* [[Circumcision scar]]
* [[Circumpendium]]
* [[Circumstraint]]
* [[Documented severe complications of circumcision]]
* [[Ethics of non-therapeutic child circumcision]]
* [[FGM]]
* [[Foreskin restoration information for circumcised teens]]
* [[History of circumcision]]
* [[Human rights]]
* [[Lymphoedema]]
* [[MGM]]
* [[Pain]]
* [[Psychological issues of male circumcision]]
* [[Rights situation on circumcision]]
* [[Risks and complications]]
* [[Sexual effects of circumcision]]
* [[Sudden Infant Death Syndrome]] (SIDS)
* [[Trauma]]
{{LINKS}}
 
* {{REFweb
|url=https://www.cirp.org/library/anatomy/garcia/
  |title=What exactly is circumcision and what is it not?
  |last=Garcia
  |first=Francisco
  |date=1995-12-11
  |accessdate=2020-09-08
}}
* {{REFjournal
|last=Fleiss
|first=Paul
|init=P
|author-link=Paul M. Fleiss
|title=The foreskin is necessary
|journal=Mothering
|date=1997-01
|volume=
|issue=
|pages=36-45
|url=http://www.noharmm.org/mothering.htm
|accessdate=2020-06-29
}}
*{{REFweb
|url=https://15square.org.uk/losses-from-circumcision/
|title=Losses from Circumcision
|last=Ball
|first=Peter
|publisher=15 Square
|date=2003-08-09
|accessdate=2023-02-23
}}
* {{REFweb
|url=http://members.tranquility.net/~rwinkel/MGM/primer.html
|title=Male Circumcision in the USA: A Human Rights Primer
|last=Winkel
|first=Rich
|author-link=Rich Winkel
|date=2005-05-12
|accessdate=2021-01-27
}}
* {{REFnews
|title=Circumcision circumspection: Weigh the facts before making the call
  |url=https://www.cirp.org/news/2007/2007-01-09_chicagotribune.php
|last=Peres
|first=Judy
|init=
|author-link=
|publisher=Chicago Tribune
|website=
|date=2007-01-09
|accessdate=2014-07-28
|format=
|quote=Ethan, a Chicagoan who asked that his last name not be used, said he and his wife decided not to circumcise their two sons, now ages 5 and 1. "We didn't think it was a good idea to impose an operation on a baby that was not medically necessary," he said.
}}
* {{REFnews
|title=Circumcision losing favor with U.S. parents
|url=https://www.cirp.org/news/2007/2007-06-21_SFChronicle.php
|last=Guthmann
|first=Edward
|publisher=San Francisco Chronicle
|website=
|date=2007-06-21
|accessdate=2024-07-28
|format=
|quote=According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the circumcision rate in the United States dropped to 55.9 percent in 2003 — an all-time postwar low.
}}
* {{REFnews
  |title=In Last Four Decades, Circumcision Has Lost Popularity in United States
|url=https://www.cirp.org/news/2007/2007-07-08_theledger.php
|last=White
|first=Garry
|author-link=
|publisher=Lakeland Ledger
|website=
|date=2007-07-08
|accessdate=2024-07-28
|quote=Opponents of circumcision say the procedure is doubly harmful, inflicting pain at the time of surgery and reducing sexual pleasure later through the removal of the nerve-rich foreskin.
}}
* {{REFnews
|title=Making the Cut
|url=https://www.cirp.org/news/2007/2007-11-02_time.php
|last=Lee-St. John
|first=Jeninne
|init=
|author-link=
|publisher=Time Magazine
|website=
|date=2007-11-02
|accessdate=2024-07-28
|format=
|quote=But [[intactivism]] is also gaining traction among educated, middle-class whites. As University of Virginia sociologist Brad Wilcox observes, "It's these new parents that are unwilling to let kids suffer."
}}
* {{REFnews
|title=Parents reconsider routine circumcision
|url=https://www.cirp.org/news/2007/2007-11-30_theenquirer.php
  |last=Facciolo
  |first=Christine
  |init=
  |author-link=
  |publisher=Cincinnati Enquirer
  |date=2007-11-30
|season=
  |accessdate=
|format=
|quote=But foes of removing the penis foreskin argue that the procedure provides minimal benefits, causes extreme pain and produces long-term psychological and sexual trauma.
}}
* {{REFdocument
|title=Genital Integrity Policy Statement
|url=https://pool.intactiwiki.org/images/2008_Genital_Integrity_Policy_Statement.pdf
|contribution=
|last=Hill
|first=George
|author-link=George Hill
|publisher=[[Doctors Opposing Circumcision (D.O.C.)]]
|format=PDF
|date=2008-06
|accessdate=2024-11-03
}}
* {{REFjournal
|last=Testa
|first=Patrick
|init=
|author-link=
|last2=Block
|first2=Walter E.
|init2=
|author2-link=
|etal=no
|title=Libertarianism and circumcision
|trans-title=
|language=
|journal=Int J Health Poiicy Manag
|location=
|date=2014-05-26
|volume=3
|issue=
|article=
|page=
|pages=33-40
|url=https://www.academia.edu/7587653/Libertarianism_and_Circumcision?email_work_card=view-paper
|pubmedID=24987720
|pubmedCID=4075101
|DOI=10.15171/ijhpm.2014.51
|accessdate=
}}
 
* {{REFweb
|url=https://intaction.org/what-is-circumcision/
|title=What is circumcision?
|last=Simone
|first=Judy
|author-link=
|publisher=Intaction
|website=https://intaction.org/
|date=2020-07-26
|accessdate=2020-10-04
|format=
|quote=
}}
* {{REFweb
|url=https://docs.google.com/document/d/1WS4pmFCoHkq3UloORfSWi4VgnM11m_5-/edit
|title=Unwarranted Presumption
|last=Anonymous
|first=
|init=
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[[Category:Body modification]]
[[Category:Circumcision]]
[[Category:Circumcision]]
[[Category:Genital mutilation]]
[[Category:Education]]
[[Category:Body modification]]
[[Category:Foreskin anatomy]]
[[Category:Genital surgery]]
[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Judaism]]
[[Category:Male circumcision]]
[[Category:Parental information]]
[[Category:Parental information]]
[[Category:Penile surgery]]
[[Category:Sociology]]
[[Category:Medical term]]
[[Category:Male genital mutilation]]
 
[[Category:From Intactipedia]]
[[Category:From IntactWiki]]
 
[[de:Zirkumzision]]
Retrieved from "https://en.intactiwiki.org/wiki/Child_circumcision"